evil, that, on the appearance of every irregularity astronomers shape new and, as they suppose, corrected theories, and adapt causes eternal and invariable to things more frequently, as it were, fortuitous. The second is, that those turbulent actions of compression, expansion, resistance, and yielding, which seem to be produced by a certain softness and hardness of bodies, taken for elementary qualities, are not compatible with the heavens, which is doubtless of the fifth and least elementary essence. But this assertion is a presumptuous and arbitrary reprobation of things and sense. For wheresoever any body in nature is in a state of rest, there also is a reluctance to change, and that in proportion to the size of the body. But wherever are natural bodies, and a local motion, there will take place either repulsion, or a yielding, or resolution of motion; for those things which have been named compactness, looseness of parts, resistance, a giving way, with many others, are what matter universally undergoes everywhere. Yet, however, from this source have come down to us all that multiplicity of orbits capriciously jumbled together, which, nevertheless, they are pleased to say are so distinctly interlineated, and which move and turn within each other so evenly and glibly, that, notwithstanding their intricacy, there is no entangling or vibration; all which are visionary and a palpable mockery of facts. will appear that, even in the heavens, it is of like | Indeed, from this source proceeds that prodigious kind, according to a nature common or cosmical, with that we experience. In the first place, then, it is plainly evident, that it is not confined to the limits of the heavens. But the demonstrations and proofs of this matter we have fully laid down in our anticipation respecting the flowing and ebbing of the sea; therefore, to that we refer; and this being supposed and taken for granted, we will proceed to the rest of the heavenly motions. But these we have said are not cosmical, but reciprocal. There are four kinds of motions visible in the heavens, besides that which we have called cosmical, which is a diurnal motion in curves within the tropics. For either the stars are raised higher, and again depressed lower, as they may be farther from and nearer to the earth; or they bend and wind themselves through the latitude of the zodiac, by running out more to the south, or more to the north, and by traversing what they call the dragons; or they vary from an incited and also an acquisitive motion, (for we join together these two,) advancing sometimes quicker, sometimes slower, sometimes progressively, sometimes retrogressively, sometimes even stopping and staying; or at a certain distance from the sun, they are more or less bound together and drawn round each other. We will recount the causes and natures of these only, generally touching the heads of each; for our present undertaking requires that to be done in this place. But in order to this, and to secure beforehand, as well as to open the way, we must frankly declare our sentiments upon some of the maxims of philosophers, as also upon certain hypotheses of astronomers, as well as their observations during several ages, out of which materials they built up their mysteries; all which things appear to us to be full of error and confusion. Wherefore there are axioms, or rather certain conceits, which, receiyed by philosophers, and transferred to astronomy, and unfortunately being credited, have corrupted the science. Our rejection of them will be simple, as well as our judgment upon them; for it is not suitable to waste precious time on silly refutations. The first of these is, that all things above the moon inclusively are incorruptible; and in no degree or form whatever do they undergo new beginnings or changes; of which it has been said elsewhere, that it is a fond and silly saying. The twelve signs of the zodiac, I presume; so called because most of them resemble some living creature; thus, Eurip., in Oreste, has Apaxovrúdns, 'draconibus, seu angui. bus plenus ;" or it may mean the two nodes, which comes to the same thing, represented by the head and the tail of the Dragon; for, the ascending node and Dragon's head have the same character to denote each, (;) so, likewise, the descending node and Dragon's tail (8.) + Consecution, used by Newton; does it mean 'picked up on its revolution,' or an orderly accompanying, &c.; a relative motion; or a train of consequential motion, incitatio referring to original ? A third is, that to each individual body appertains a peculiar and appropriate motion; and if more motions are observable, all, except one, are extrinsic, and derived from some other moving body. Nothing falser than this can be conceived, since all bodies, from the manifold consent of things, are endued with even many motions, some denoting their nature, others waxing weaker and weaker, others even lying hid until they be drawn forth; but there are no special or proper motions of things, except the exact measures and ratios of common motions. And hence again has been presented to us that primum mobile severed and made distinct, and heavens on heavens, and newfangled mansions contained in them, that they may suffice for the performances of so many different motions. The fourth is, that all heavenly motions are distributed through perfect circles; which is a very cumbrous doctrine, and has produced to us those monsters of eccentric curves and epicycles; whereas, however, had they consulted nature, a regulated and uniform motion belongs to a perfect circle; but a motion, regulated, indeed, but of Sectio means, classically, a confiscation of goods, division of spoil, &c., so, possibly, here it may mean dissipation of motion; if the illustrious author uses it here for secutio, (a sequor,) then it means an "orderly following," (consequentia erakoλov@nris,) but such a word in such a sense is utterly unclassical, different forms, such as is found in many of the heavenly bodies, is the property of other lines; and with good reason Gilbert ridicules these, because it is not likely that nature should have formed wheels, which, for example, contain one or two miles in circumference, in order that a ball of a finger's breadth should be sustained: for of so little magnitude does the body of a planet appear to be, compared with those circles round which they pretend it is to be carried. The fifth is, that stars are parts of their sphere, as if fixed therein by a nail. But this is most clearly a revery of those who deal in mathematics, not in nature, and are so stupidly intent on the motion of bodies, that they entirely forget their substances. For that fastening is a particular disposition of compact and consistent things, which have firm cohesions, because of the pressures of the parts. But it is utterly to be unlooked for, if it be applied to soft or liquid substances. The sixth is that a star is a denser part of its sphere of action; for the stars are not only not parts, but neither are they denser; for they are not homogeneous with either, and that in degree only, but they are entirely heterogeneous, and differ in substance; and, besides, that substance, as to density, is rarer, and more expanded than an ethereal one. Over and above these there are many other conceits of equal whimsicality; but these shall suffice for the subject now under discussion. Again, these observations have been made on the fanciful dicta of philosophy respecting the heavens. But as to what respects the hypotheses of astronomers, the refutation of them is generally without any use; for neither are they asserted for truths, nor is it impossible that, although they may vary and be contradictory in themselves, the phenomena should equally be preserved and harmonize. Therefore, if you please, between astronomy and philosophy, as if linked together by an expedient and legitimate bond, be so circumspect a mediator, that, on the one hand, astronomy may have her previous hypotheses, which are best adapted to expedite calculations; on the other, philosophy, such as approach nearest to the truth of nature; and so that the hypotheses of astronomy may not prejudice the truth of a thing, and that the decisions of philosophy may be such as may easily be explained with regard to the phenomena of astronomy. And so much for hypotheses. Now, as to astronomical observations, which are assiduously accumulated, and continually are pouring down like water from the sky, I have a great wish to admonish men on that head; lest, haply, that be true of them, which is so elegantly fabled of the fly in Æsop, that sitting on the harness of a chariot, contending for victory at the Olympic games, cried out, "see what dust I excite!" Just so, any petty observation, vacillating, at one time, in the instrument, at this, in the eye, and at that, in a calculation, and which possibly may be a reality, on account of some true change in the heavens, calls into existence new firmaments, new spheres, and new circles. And we do not make these remarks in order that any relaxation in the taking of observations or the study of history should take place, both which we are of opinion should by all means be stimulated and intently prosecuted; but only that, in rejecting or changing hypotheses, the highest prudence and a mature gravity of judgment be displayed. Wherefore, having now laid open the road as to the motions themselves, we will say a few words also as to their nature. We have already said, then, that there are four kinds of motions of the higher order in the heavens: an ascending and descending motion through the whole expanse of the heavens; a motion, to the breadth of the zodiac, stretching out towards south and north: a motion in the course of the zodiac, quick, slow, progressive, retrograde, stable; and the motion of elongation from the sun. And let not any one object, that that second motion of the breadth of the zodiac or of the signs* thereof may be referred to that great cosmical motion, since there is an inclination by turns towards the south and the north; which as well as the curves themselves from one tropic to the other are alike, except that the latter motion is merely curvilinear, but the former hath also many turnings, and lies inmost at much less distances. For neither hath this point escaped our consideration. But assuredly the constant and perpetual motion of the sun in the ecliptic, considered apart from all latitude and exclusively of the signs of the zodiac, which same sun does yet communicate with the rest of the planets, as to their paths within the tropics, does not allow us to entertain this opinion. Wherefore, we must seek for different sources of this and of the other three motions. And these are the points, with regard to the heavenly motions, which appear to us to be fraught with a less degree of inconvenience. But we must see what they may be found to deny, and what to affirm. They deny that the earth revolves. They deny that there are in the heavens two motions from the east to different points of the west; and they affirm one, that outstrips and consequently leaves behind others. They deny any oblique circle and its different polarity, and they affirm spiral curves. They deny a primum mobile separated and forced asunder; and they affirma cosmical consent, as it were the common bond of the system. They affirm that a diurnal motion is found not in the sky or heavens, but in the air, in waters, even in what are placed on the superficies of the earth, as far as relates to their turning round. They affirm that that close following has prescribed, in the planets both of the greater and cosmical rolling in fluids is their whirling and lesser orbit. They affirm the following after tendency to become consistent, till at length they the sun, from the defective nature of weaker reach a state of perfect rest. They deny that the flames, of Venus and Mercury; since even the stars are fixed like knots in a board. They deny moving stars, the attendants of Jupiter, have been that eccentric circles, epicycles, and such like discovered by Galilæus. But these are matters crafty devices are realities. They affirm that a of which we, standing as it were in the threshold magnetic motion, or one having a power to collect of natural history, and of philosophy, take a matter together, is in full vigour in the stars, by prospective view-subjects which, probably, the which fire elicits fire, and elevates it. They inquirer will be better qualified to prove, in proaffirm that, in the firmament of the planets, the portion to the depth of his researches into natural bodies of the planets move and revolve quicker history. But, again, however, do we enter our than the rest of the heavens in which they are protest against this fetter of intellect. In these, placed, which certainly revolves, but slower. as in other matters, we are sure of the correctness They affirm from that inequality the waves, the of our career, though we be not so persuaded as undulations, the flowings and ebbings of the to the station we are entitled to hold in it. But ethereal atmosphere of the planets; and from we have mentioned these topics during our intelthem that various motions are drawn forth. They lectual journey, lest any one should suppose, that affirm a necessity in the planets of revolving from a wavering judgment, or a destitution of quicker or slower, according as they may be talent to maintain the position, we had a preference placed higher or lower in the heavens, and that for advocating negative questions. from the consent of the universe. But at the Wherefore, we will retain, as the heavenly nasame time they affirm the languor, resulting from tures are wont to do, (since our treatise is of them,) an incitement in their course beyond what naturel a dignified constancy. THOUGHTS AND OBSERVATIONS OF FRANCIS BACON, OF VERULAM, CONCERNING THE INTERPRETATION OF NATURE, OR THE INVENTION OF THINGS AND OF WORKS. FRANCIS BACON thought in this manner. The knowledge whereof mankind is now possessed doth not extend to certainty and magnitude of works. Physicians pronounce many diseases incurable, and often make mistakes, and fail in the treatment of the rest. Alchymists wax old and die in the embraces of hope. The works of magicians are transitory and barren. The mechanical arts take but little light from philosophy, and do but spin on slowly the little threads of their own experience. Chance is, without doubt, a beneficial discoverer of inventions; but one that scatters her favours among men in distant ages and periods. So he saw well, that the inventions of man, which we possess, must be counted very imperfect and immature; and that, in the present state of the sciences, are not now to be expected, except in a great length of time; and that those which human industry has hitherto produced cannot be ascribed to philosophy. He thought also, that in this narrowness of man's power, that is most deplorable at present, and ominous for the future; that men, contrary to their real interest, strive to rescue ignorance from shame, and to satisfy themselves in this poverty. For, the physician, besides the cautels of practice, (in which there are no small means of defending the credit of his art,) calls in what is, as it were, a general cautel of art, by turning into a reproach upon nature the weakness of his art; and, what art doth not reach, that he discharges from art upon nature, as an impossibility; neither can art be condemned, when itself judges. That philosophy also, out of which the knowledge of physic, which now is in use, is hewn, itself receives and cherishes certain positions and opinions, which, if they be well weighed, induce this persuasion, that nothing arduous or powerful in nature is to be expected from art, and the hand of man. Hence that opinion, that "the heat of the sun or star, and the heat of a fire differ in kind;" and that other, that "composition is the work of man, but mixture is the work of nature alone," and the like; which, if they be carefully examined, all tend to an envious circumscription of human power, and a voluntary and artificial despair, which rejects not only the auguries of hope, but the chances of experiment, and cuts away all the incitements and nerves of industry; while they are solicitous, only, that their art be thought perfect, and labour for a most worthless vainglory; | namely, to have it believed that all is impossible that is not already found. But the alchymist, to relieve his art, throws the blame on his own errors, accusing himself, either of not fully understanding the terms of the art and its authors, which makes him attend to the whispers of tradition and oral evidence; or else of failing in the true proportions, and scruples, and moments of practice; which makes him renew infinitely his trials, under what he supposes more favourable prospects. And, meantime, when, in the mazy labyrinth of experiment, he lights upon certain inventions, either new in appearance or of some utility, he feeds his mind with such foretastes, and displays and magnifies them above their value, and supplies the rest in hopes. The magician, when he finds something, as he conceives, above nature effected, and is convinced that a breach is once made in nature, gives his imagination wings, and scarcely allows that the matter admits of degrees of greater or less; wherefore, he assures himself of arriving at the highest power; not seeing that they are but subjects of a certain and almost definite kind, wherein magic and superstition, in all ages and countries, have had power and played. The mechanical person, if he chances to add a higher finish or more elegant ornament to previous inventions, or to compound, and bring together into one, separate observations; or to couple things more commodiously and naturally with their use; or to produce the work in greater or less mass and volume than has usually been the case; ranks himself at length among inventors. So he saw well, that men came to sneer at the invention of new things and arts as a vain attempt, and not to be relied on; or to believe that important inventions are indeed extant, but confined among a few, in the strictest silence and mystery; or else that they descend to account those little industries and additions, inventions. All which turns to the averting of men's minds from just and constant labour, and from the working of inventions, noble and worthy of the human supplied for human life by the mechanical arts; they are apt rather to admire the provisions of man, than to apprehend his want; not considering that the original observations of man and operations of nature, which are, as it were, the breath and life of all that variety, are not many nor deeply fetched; and that the rest belongs to man's patience, and the subtile and ruled motion of his hand or instruments; and that in this the shop is very like the library, which exhibits such a variety of books, in which, if one carefully examine, he will find nothing but infinite iterations of the same thing, varied in the form and mode of treatment, but preoccupied in invention. So he saw plainly, that opinion of abundance was one of the causes of want; and that both works and doctrines appear many, but are, when examined, few. He thought also that those doctrines which we have, are presented with a kind of ambition and pretension, and come before us dressed up and in form, as if each art were in every branch perfect and finished. For it is reduced into such methods and divisions, as seem to embrace and include all treatises that can possibly bear on that subject. And however weakly the parts are filled, and destitute of any living seeds of things: yet they carry the show and reason of a total; and it is brought to this, that a few writings of some received authors, yet not the best chosen, go for the very art in its perfection. Whereas the earliest searches for truth in better faith, and with more fortunate event, used to throw into aphorisms or sentences short, scattered, and unconfined by method, the knowledge which it was their object to gather from the consideration of things, and to store up for use; which, as they showed simple representations of things discovered, and evident spaces and vacancies for things not discovered, were less fallacious; and invited men's talents and thoughts alike to criticism and invention. But now sciences are exhibited in such forms, as to claim belief, not solicit judgment, and check with a sullen authority the generous springings of invention: so that every succession and devolution of philosophy bears the character of master and disciple, not of inventor and continuer; whence it necessarily follows that sciences continue in their own steps, and never stir from their ground. This has been done for many ages, so that what is positive is fixed, and that which is question is kept question, and remains wholly in the same state. And, therefore, he saw plainly, that columns against proceeding further are firmly and, as it were, fatally pitched; and that it is no marvel, that that is not obtained, for which men feel neither hope nor desire. He thought also, that what is said of men's despondency or self-conceit, as far as concerns most of the pursuers of science, is too deeply He thought also, when men did set before them-fetched, for far the greater part is otherwise occuselves the variety and exquisite perfection of works pied. They seek knowledge either for delight race. and satisfaction, or for profit and professional emolument, or for support and ornament of the reputation and if these are proposed as the ends of sciences, so far will men be from wishing that the mass of knowledge receive an increase, that, in that stock which is at hand, they will seek no more than what they can turn to use in the matter before them. And if any one among so many seeks knowledge with an honest zeal and for its own sake, yet he will be found to hunt rather after variety than truth. And if he be a severer inquisitor of truth, yet that very truth will be such as will rather explain more subtly things already uttered, than kindle any new light. And if his heart is so large, that he propounds to himself further discovery, he will doubtless be most taken with that light which displays in the distance specious contemplations, not that which shows important works and inventions close at hand. So he saw plainly that we return to this point, that it is by no means wonderful that the course is not finished, when men turn aside to these lesser matters and much more when, as far as he can see, the mark itself has never been set up and fixed for any man. But the mark is no other, than that mankind be continually enriched with new works and powers. He thought also, that among these difficulties of the sciences, the case of natural philosophy has been the hardest of all: inasmuch as it has had but a trifling share of men's labour, has been readily deserted, and never cultivated and matured in any high degree. For since the Christian faith has grown up and been received, the greatest number of wits have been employed upon divinity, and in this subject the highest rewards have been offered to men's studies, and aids of every kind most plentifully supplied. And before-time, likewise, the greatest of the labours of philosophers was consumed in moral philosophy, which was almost in the place of divinity to the heathens. And in both times a great part of the best wits betook themselves to public business, especially in the time of the greatness of the Romans, who by reason of their large empire needed the service of the most. But the time among the Grecians, in which natural philosophy seemed most to flourish, was out a short space, and that also abused and thrown away in disputing, and affecting new opinions. But from that time to this, no one can be named, who has made it his business to cultivate natural philosophy, and consumed his life in its pursuit; so that this science has not for ages possessed any whole man, unless perchance one may instance some monk studying in a cloister, or some gentleman in the country, and that will be found very rare. But it has become a kind of passage and bridge to other arts, and this venerable mother of the sciences is turned into their handmaid, and made to serve physic and practical mathematics, or to season a little, young and unripe wits, like a kind of priming, that they may take a second wash in a kindlier and better manner. So he saw plainly, that, from the small number, and hurry, and rawness of its followers, natural philosophy is left destitute. And soon after, he saw also that this had a very great influence on the general state of knowledge: for all the arts and sciences, when torn up from this root, may perhaps be polished and moulded to use, but will grow no further. He thought also, how prejudicial and every way hard an adversary natural philosophy has in superstition and the immoderate and blind zeal of religion. For he found that some of the Grecians who first propounded the natural causes of thunder and storm, to men unused to such speculations, were condemned, on that ground, for impiety and that the cosmographers, who, by most certain proofs, which no man in his senses would now dispute, asserted the spherical figure of the earth, and consequently the existence of antipodes; were not much better treated, but included in the same sentence, not indeed affecting life, but character, on the accusation of some of the ancient fathers of the Christian church. And the case of natural history is now much worse, in regard of the boldness of the schoolmen and their dependencies, who having, as far as they can, reduced divinity into method, and given it the form of an art; having attempted moreover to incorporate the contentions and turbulent philosophy of Aristotle into the body of their religion. And it has the same tendency that, in our time, no opinions or arguments are found to have more success, than those which celebrate with great pomp and solemnity the union, as if it were a lawful one, between divinity and philosophy, that is, faith and sense; and while they tickle men's minds with an agreeable variety, are meantime making an unhallowed conjunction of divine and human matters. And, truly, if one observes carefully, as great danger threatens natural philosophy from this kind of hollow and ill assorted league, as from avowed hostility. For, in a treaty and confederation of this nature, only the received maxims of philosophy are included; but every thing of advancement or improvement is most rigorously and obstinately shut out. In fine, with respect to augmentations, and what may be called the new shores and tracts of philosophy, all from the side of religion is full of grovelling suspicion, and impotent disdain. Thus, some in their simplicity fear that my deeper inquisition into nature may penetrate perchance beyond the allowed and sanetioned limit of sobriety, improperly applying what is said of the secrets of God, many of which remain closed under the divine signet, to the secrets of nature which are guarded by no interdict. Others, with greater cunning, conceive that if men are ignorant of second causes, each particular may be more easily referred to the wand of the deity which they think is of the highest interest |