per annum; the same to be paid out of any moneys in the general fund of the State not otherwise appropriated, commencing with the first day of January, 1913. [L. 1913, Ch. 110, p. 186, § 7.]

III. THE OFFICE OF STATE SUPERINTENDENT

[Extract from an article on "A Constitutional State Board of Education," by Reed, Thomas H.; in Sierra Educational News, January, 1913, pp. 19-21.]

The first great point of weakness in our system of educational administration is the method of selecting a State Superintendent of Public Instruction by popular vote. Such a man rarely employs the obvious influence of the place to do more than strengthen his own hold upon it. Popular election stands as an insuperable bar to the extension of the powers of the superintendent. The promotion of the efficiency of our rural schools absolutely demands that the superintendent possess regulatory instead of simply recommendatory powers over the work of such schools. Such a task requires genuine administrative ability and technical training, qualities which are not often found in company with the arts by which an educator commends himself to the managers of a great political party, or with the larger talent for self exploitation which is the only substitute for such managerial support. The superintendency in a great state requires years of experience, and ought to be the culmination of a successful career. The choice of superintendents should not be limited to the narrow field of California, but should be made from the country at large. All this is impossible if the place is filled by election. Real experts in good positions will not risk the chances of the wheel of politics. A citizen of New York, for example, cannot stand for election in California. It is a general principle of political science that experts cannot be chosen by election.

It would seem, therefore, that the Superintendent of Public Instruction should be appointed by some authority. This result will be reached in the course of the movement for a "short ballot " if it is not anticipated by educational reform. It is not unreasonable to urge that the superintendent should be appointed by the governor and that education should be made simply one of the departments of state government. There are, however, certain considerations which weigh very heavily against such a plan. Education is by very many times the most important branch of administration in the state, both as to the magnitude and multi

tude of its activities. It is easily first in the amount of money expended, the number of persons employed and the proportion of the population directly affected. Over this vastest of public enterprises the superintendent of public instruction should exercise a great and positive control. From these facts flow two important conclusions. The first is that, under present political conditions, in a state where traditions of expert administration are by no means firmly established, it is unsafe to give the governor the appointment of an officer who is, or should be, so powerful. The temptation of such an easy opportunity to put the educational system of the state into "politics " might well prove too much for a weak or ambitious governor. The only protection, beyond this dubious one of the gubernatorial conscience, would be an enlightened public sentiment for expert service which is only just beginning to make itself felt in California. The mere fact that the present governor is honest and capable should not blind us to the possible action of his successors. The second conclusion is that the field of educational administration is so broad and involves so much that is technical and professional that the governor has not the time nor the training necessary for its successful supervision. He is by no means always capable of intelligently criticising the superintendent, and never could find the time for exercising this capability if he had it. Several months' service in the office of the most vigorous and active governor in the history of California has given the writer an intimate knowledge of the crowded life of the state executive. There is no time in his office for checking the conduct of a superintendent of public instruction.

The only alternatives would be election by the legislature or appointment by a state board of education. The first of these alternatives has against it every argument which might be employed against appointment by the governor, and many more. The comparative irresponsibility of the individual legislator makes it possible in that body to undertake political thuggery, which the worst governor would never even contemplate. We are left therefore, only the last alternative, appointment by the state board of education. This body, if properly constituted, might select a superintendent on a rational basis, and effectively criticise and control him after selection.

IV. STATE BOARDS OF EDUCATION

Type forms of organization and types of duties for such boards are here illustrated by selections from laws and con

stitutions. The first, from the Oregon laws, illustrates well the type of state board composed ex officio of state officials.

1. The Oregon State Board of Education

[From Oregon School Laws (1913), pp. 28-29.]

1. State Board, How Constituted. The Governor, Secretary of State, and Superintendent of Public Instruction-shall constitute a State Board of Education. [L. O. L. § 3948.]

2. Meetings of Printing for. The meetings of the board shall be held semi-annually, at the State Capitol, on the first Monday in January and July. All needed stationery for the use of the board shall be furnished by the Secretary of State, and any printing authorized by the board shall be done by the State. Printer, at rates allowed by law for other State work. [L. O. L. § 3949.]

3. Powers Enumerated. The board shall have power:

a. Authorize Text-Books. To authorize such series of textbooks to be used in the public schools as shall be adopted by the text-book commission.

b. Prepare Course of Study. To prepare a State course of studies for grammar grade schools. The Secretary of State shall cause the courses of study to be printed, and the State Superintendent shall send copies of the same to the various county superintendents, who shall properly distribute them to the boards of directors of the several districts, for use in public school work.

c. Prescribe Rules. To prescribe a series of rules and regulations for the general government of public schools, and for the maintenance of discipline therein.

d. To use a common seal.

e. To order any printing that may be necessary to carry into effect the provisions of this act, said printing to be done by the State Printer. [L. O. L. § 3950.]

4. State Board Shall Indicate Sources for Questions on Theory and Practice. It shall be the duty of the State Board of Education to indicate, at least one year before any examination for a county certificate, the sources from which at least sixty per cent of the questions in theory and practice will be selected by said board for said examination. [L. O. L. § 3989.]

5. Publication of Proceedings. The proceedings of each session of the State Board of Education shall be published for general

distribution, containing in addition to the ordinary proceedings, the names of the successful applicants and the certificates granted. [L. O. L. § 3959.]

The next selection illustrates the type of state board composed in large part ex officio of school officials.

2. The Indiana State Board of Education

[As reconstructed by Act approved March 4, 1899. From Indiana Revised Statutes of 1908.]

1. State board of education. The governor of the state, the state superintendent of public instruction, the president of the state university, the president of Purdue university, the president of the state normal school, the superintendent of common schools of the three largest cities in the state, and three citizens of prominence actively engaged in educational work in the state, appointed by the governor, at least one of whom shall be a county superintendent, none of whom shall be appointed from any county in which any other member of the state board of education resides, or from which any other member was appointed, shall constitute a board to be denominated the Indiana state board of education. The three members to be appointed by the governor shall be appointed immediately upon the taking effect of this act. One of such members shall be appointed for one year, one for two years and one for three years from the date of his appointment, and each of said appointees shall serve until his successor shall have been appointed and qualified; and after the first appointment the governor shall annually appoint one such member to serve for the term of three years, to take the place of the member whose term shall have then expired; and the governor shall further have power to fill all vacancies that may occur in the office of any such member who holds his office by appointment from the governor. The size of the cities shall, for this purpose, be determined by the enumeration of children for school purposes annually reported by school examiners to the superintendent of public instruction. The superintendent of public instruction shall, ex officio, be president of the board, and in his absence the members present shall elect a president pro tempore. The board shall elect one of its members secretary and treasurer, who shall have the custody of its records, papers and effects, and shall keep minutes of its proceedings: Provided, That such records, papers, effects and minutes shall be kept at the office of the superintendent, and shall be open for his

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inspection. The said board shall meet upon the call of the president, or a majority of its members, at such place in the state as may be designated in the call, and shall devise, adopt and procure a seal, on the face of which shall be the words Indiana State Board of Education," and such other device or motto as the board may direct, an impression and written description of which shall be recorded on the minutes of the board and filed in the office of the secretary of state, which seal shall be used for the authentication of the acts of the board and the important acts of the superintendent of public instruction. (R. S. 1908, § 6309.)

2. Duties and powers. Said board, at its meetings, shall perform such duties as are prescribed by law, and may make and adopt such rules, by-laws and regulations as may be necessary for its own government, and for the complete carrying into effect the provisions of the next section of this act, and not in conflict with the laws of the state, and shall take cognizance of such questions as may arise in the practical administration of the school system not otherwise provided for, and duly consider, discuss, and determine the same. (R. S. 1908, § 6310.)

[The board acts as a text-book commission for the state. Previous to 1913 it also acted as a board for the inspection of high schools.]

3. State certificates. Said board may grant state certificates of qualification to such teachers as may, upon a thorough and critical examination, be found to possess eminent scholarship and professional ability, and shall furnish satisfactory evidence of good moral character. They shall hold stated meetings, at which they shall examine all applicants, and those found to possess the qualifications herein above named shall receive such certificate, signed by the president of the board, and impressed with the seal thereof; and the said certificate shall entitle the holder to teach in any of the schools of the state without further examination, and shall also be valid during the lifetime of said holder, unless revoked by said board. Each applicant for examination shall, on making application, pay to the treasurer of the board five dollars as a fee. (R. S. 1908, § 6311.)

4. Pay and mileage of board. The members of said board, other than the governor and state superintendent of public instruction, shall be entitled to receive for their services, while actually engaged in the duties of their office, five dollars per day and five cents per mile necessarily traveled while so engaged; which amount shall be certified by the board to the auditor of the state, who shall draw his warrant therefor, payable out of the general fund, which sum shall be reimbursed to the general fund by