and the king sought to crush it by severe punishments and numerous executions. In 1538 he entered into a friendly alliance with the protestant princes in Germany: but as their object was to promote the reformed religion, and Henry's, only to spite and annoy the pope and the emperor, the king of England and his new allies could not act together with any real cordiality.

The pope on his side lost no opportunity of injuring Henry, and employed the cardinal de la Pole to foment disturbances in England. Pole was the king's second cousin. He had been educated at Henry's expense, and long experienced his favor, but forfeited it by joining warmly with the pope in condemning the king's divorce. Clement made Pole a cardinal, and sent him as his legate into Flanders, that he might with the more facility correspond with his friends in England, and carry on his plots against the progress of reformation in England.

These conspiracies were not carried on so secretly but that Henry obtained some hint of them; and the cardinal's two brothers were executed in consequence. Even Pole's aged mother, the countess of Salisbury, was not spared. This venerable and last remaining Plantagenet was beheaded for having received a letter from her son.

The rich spoils the king had got by dissolving the smaller monasteries had made him greedy of more; and in 1539 his obsequious parliament passed an act for putting at his disposal all the remaining religious houses, which either had been or should be surrendered to him. The king was not backward in forcing them by all sorts of means, to surrender. In 1545 another act was passed, which even empowered him to seize the revenues of the universities.. But these were spared (as some have said) by the intercession of queen Catharine Parr.

A. D. 1541. Henry, who was very fond of royal interviews, was now desirous of having one with his nephew the king of Scotland (James V.;) and a meeting was to have taken place at York. Henry and his court kept the appointment, and waited for some days; but

Did the pope endeavor to recover his authority in England?
By what cruel measures did Henry oppose Cardinal Pole?
Did Henry persevere in his dissolution of monasteries ?
On what pretence did Henry VIII. make war with Scotland?

the king of Scots, having been prevented by his clergy, never came, and Henry was so much enraged at this insult that he declared war against him. The English army obtained an important victory at Solway Moss, and James was so much overwhelmed when he heard of it that he sunk into a settled melancholy, and died December 14, 1542, leaving an infant princess only seven days old.

This princess was the celebrated Mary queen of Scots, whose unhappy life and death will be related in its proper place. Henry was desirous to procure a marriage between the young queen of Scotland and his son Edward prince of Wales, and used both force and artifice to bring it about. He wanted also to be made protector of Scotland during the queen's minority; but the Scots were too bold to be frightened, and too wary to be ensnared.

After Henry and the emperor had been at open enmity for many years a reconciliation took place between them; and Henry, who with all his violence of temper and self-conceit, was generally the dupe of others, was drawn in to make war on Francis. Charles and Henry, at the head of their armies, joined each other near Calais; and though the latter was now grown fat and unwieldy, he appeared in person in the field, and laid seige to Boulogne, which was soon taken.

The king of France now pretended to negotiate a peace with the two potentates. But while the ambassadors were going through their formal ceremonials, a Dominican friar who was in their train, and had secret instructions from Francis, concluded a separate peace with the emperor, who withdrew his army, and left his friend and ally to take care of himself. Henry returned to England, after leaving a garrison at Boulogne.

Peace was made between France and EngA. D. 1546. land; and it was agreed that Boulogne, which had been bravely defended against all the attempts Francis had made to regain it, should remain in the possession of the English for eight years, after which time it

Who was the only daughter of James V. of Scotland, and what interest did the king of England take in her affairs?

Did Henry engage in a new war with France?
Did Francis I. deal deceitfully with Henry?

Did Henry make peace with France and Scotland?

was to be given up to France on the payment of a certain sum of money. Peace was also about this time made with Scotland; and Henry, being no longer troubled with foreign enemies, had the more time to torment his own subjects.

Henry required the people to make his opinion the standard of their faith, and was continually changing that opinion, and making contradictory laws, so it was scarcely possible for his subjects to steer a safe course among the difficulties which his tyrannical caprice laid in their way. Many were put to death for denying his supremacy. Towards the end of his life he became dropsical, which being added to his unwieldy corpulence, disabled him from walking, and made him "more furious than a chained lion."

These infirmities, indeed, so greatly increased the natural violence and irritability of his temper, that every body was afraid to come near him. Even the queen, though she was his most attentive nurse, with all her patience and discretion, very narrowly escaped being impeached for high treason, in consequence of having one day displeased him by expressing herself warmly in a religious argument. Indeed, his tyranny and caprice were such that none could feel themselves secure.

Among the instances of Henry's injustice A. D.1546. and cruelty, the death of lord Surrey is as much as any to be detested. The duke of Norfolk and his son, lord Surrey, were committed to the Tower. The duke had been one of the king's earliest favorites, and lord Surrey was one of the most accomplished noblemen in England, and had by his talents and acquirements retained the king's regard for many years. Both these noblemen were supporters of the Roman Catholic cause,

How did Henry manifest exceeding fickleness of purpose, and violence of temper?

Was the king's violence ever expressed towards queen Catharine Parr?

Upon what pretence were the duke of Norfolk and his son sent to the Tower?

and some people thought that a fear lest they should dis turb the peace of the young Edward's reign, when he should come to the throne, was the real cause of their ruin.

Whatever the cause was, the charges actually brought against them were frivolous. The chief charges against lord Surrey were that he had quartered in his coat of arms the arms of Edward the Confessor, which had been done by all his ancestors; and that he studied Italian, and was fond of conversing with foreigners, which made it probable that he corresponded with cardinal de la Pole. He was declared guilty of high treason, and was beheaded Jan. 19, 1547.

The duke of Norfolk seemed to cling to life with more solicitude than his accomplished son had done. He tried every concession that he could think of to soften the king: but Henry, as if he thirsted for his blood, hurried on the proceedings of parliament, and his death-warrant was signed Jan. 27, but before it could be executed the king expired, and thus his victim escaped.

Henry died in the 56th year of his age, and the 28th of his reign. He had been six times married, and left three children-Edward, by Jane Seymour, who succeeded him; Mary, by Catharine of Arragon, Elizabeth, by Anne Boleyn, who both were afterwards queens of England.

Though Henry had declared both his daughters illegitimate, he appointed them in his will, after their brother to the succession of the crown. In case they all died without children, he left the succession after them to the children and heirs of his youngest sister, the duchess of Brandon, to the entire exclusion of his eldest sister Margaret, who after the death of her first husband, the king of Scotland, had married the earl of Angus, and had one daughter, wife of the earl of Lenox, and mother of Henry Darnley, of whom we shall hear more.

Wickliffe's opinions, notwithstanding the early persecutions of his followers, had never been eradicated. During

Upon what charges was lord Surrey executed?

How did the duke of Norfolk escape?

At what age did Henry VIII. die, and who were his family?
How did Henry VIII. order the succession?

Had the Lollards been eradicated in England?

the long civil wars the government had so many cares, that it attended but little to any affairs of religion. Consequently the Lollards increased in number; and in the early part of this reign their opinions gathered strength from the success of their protestant brethren in Germany, where Luther, a new reformer, had arisen, and drew people more and more from popery. Henry VIII. at first treated the Lollards with the utmost rigor, but relaxed towards them at the time of his quarrel with the pope.

This reign is generally considered as the era of the reformation in England, and much certainly was at this time done towards it. The country was freed from subjection to the pope: the clergy were made amenable to the same laws with the laity. But the same caprice and violence of temper that had made the king do thus much prevented him from completing the great work he had begun. He abol. ished the religious houses with all their rules and observances, and yet appointed priests to say masses for his own soul. He forbade the worship of images, and commanded the church service to be read in English: and yet he burnt many persons for heresy.

Henry permitted the bible to be translated, and then forbade it to be read except by particular persons. But notwithstanding all the impediments the king's inconsistencies put in the way of the Reformation, and the steadier opposition of the Romish clergy, the pure light of the new religion was still kept burning, chiefly through the firm perseverance of Cranmer, till in time it cleared away the darkness of superstition and popery.

The great men of this reign demand some consideration. Few characters known in history deserve more commendation than Cranmer. He was the only one of Henry's favorites who had no little selfish views of his own. His whole soul was placed on one great object—the reformation of religion; and to that all the powers of his mind were applied. Wolsey's great abilities were chiefly employed in raising himself to the highest worldly dignity. Cromwell, though a zealous reformer, was intent on enriching

Did Henry VIII. promote the reformation of Christianity?
By whose influence was the reformation advanced?

Who were the chief men of Henry's reign?