6. A preposition is a part of speech used to connect words and show their relation; as, He went from Portland to Boston. See § 32.

7. A conjunction is a part of speech used to connect words and sentences. See § 39.

8. An interjection is a part of speech used in giving utterance to some sudden feeling or emotion; as, O! alas! See § 41.

1. A sentence is any collection of words comprising a subject and predicate; as, The storm rages. See § 13. 2. The subject denotes that of which any thing is asserted; as, The mountains are covered. See § 14.

3. The predicate expresses that which is asserted of the subject; as, The mountains are covered. See §§ 15 and 16.

4. An adjunct is two or more words connected with another word to modify its meaning. See § 22.

5. The modified subject is the subject explained, described or limited by one or more words; as, The lofty mountains are covered. See §§ 23, 26 and 27.

6. The modified predicate is the predicate modified or limited by some word or words connected with it; as, The lofty mountains are covered deeply with snow. See § 34.

NOTE-The modified subject is usually termed the logical subject, and the modified predicate, the logical predicate; the word modified is preferred to logical, as it is more strictly a grammatical term.

DIVISION OF NOUNS.

§ 45. COMMON AND PROPER NOUNS.

1. A single name is often applicable to a great number of objects; as, Animal, plant, river, stone, mountain.

The name animal is applicable to every living being. The name man is ap plicable to each of a certain class of living beings. So likewise each of the names, bird, fish, reptile, quadruped, is applicable to a whole class of beings and to every individual of a class. The names robin, thrush, lark, eagle, and raven, denote distinct classes of birds, and each of them is applicable to every individual of their own class.

In like manner, the name plant is applicable to almost every thing that grows from the ground.

2. A name which is applicable alike to a class, and to each individual of a class of objects, is called a general or common

noun.

3. Sometimes a particular name is given to an individual of a certain class, to distinguish it from the rest; as, Adam, Homer, Bucephalus, Amazon, Andes.

4. Particular names which denote individual objects are called proper* nguns.

*The word proper, as used in this connexion, signifies, "belonging to the individual," "not common," (Lat. proprius," peculiar.")

§ 46. DEFINITIONS..

NOUNS are divided into two general classes; Common and Proper.

1. COMMON NOUNS are names given to whole classes; as, Animal, plant, river, stone, grain.

2. PROPER NOUNS are names given to individuals; as, Washington, Boston, Amazon, Andes.

Common nouns are divided into collective, abstract, participial or verbal, and compound.

3. A collective noun is the name of a body or collection of individuals; as, People, flock, council, assembly.

4. An abstract noun is the name of some quality; as, Cheerfulness, vanity, goodness, frailty.

5. A participial or verbal noun is the name of some action, or state of being; as, The cheering of the multitude. The singing of birds.

NOTE.-Such nouns are called verbal, because they are derived from verbs; participial, from having the form of a participle.

6. A compound noun is a name composed of two or more words, which are generally separated by a hyphen; as, Rail-road, will-with-a-wisp.

OBSERVATIONS.

1. A common noun often becomes proper when it denotes an inanimate object or an abstract quality personified; as, Winter! awful thou. Time' how ew thy value weigh.

2. A common noun becomes proper, when, with the article the, it distinguishes some particular place, object or event, as remarkable above others of the same name; as, The Bar, the Park, the Common, the Tempest, the Dark-Day, the Deluge.

3. A proper noun becomes common, when applied to a class of individuals, to designate in them some character or quality of the person or object to which the name was originally given; as, He is the Cicero of his age. He never will become a Washington.

4. Proper names preceded by an article generally become common; but this is not the case with names that designate a whole people; as, The Americans, the Russians, the Indians; but when such nouns are applicable to individuals, or to any part of the people thus designated, they become common; as, Amer*icans, Russians, Indians.

EXERCISE.

Write on the board or slate, in one column, the proper nouns; in another column the common nouns.

It is the business of geography to describe the earth. The science which teaches the size, form, nature, and motions of the sun, moon and stars, is called astronomy. The grand divisions of the Eastern Continent, are Europe, Africa and Asia. A river is a large stream of water; as, The Mississippi, the Amazon, the Nile, the Danube, the Ganges, &c.

Columbus discovered America. George Washington commanded the American army in the war of the revolution. The career of Cromwell was short. Immediately after his death, measures were taken to restore Charles to the throne of England. This was opposed by a powerful party.

Several tribes of Indians,* among which were the Narragansets and Mohegans, submitted to the king of England.

ORAL EXERCISE.†

1. Are there as many names in the English language as objects which can be described? Give some examples of names each of which is applicable to a number of objects.

2. Which name is applicable to the largest number of objects, animal or man? Animal or bird? Bird or robin? Bird or lark? Reptile or worm? Tree or maple? Plant or tree?

3. Mention the names of as many animals as you can recollect? Is each of the names given applicable to more than one animal?

4. What kind of nouns are those which you have mentioned? Why so called? Define a common noun.

5. Which noun is the more general or common, mountain or Alps? river or Amazon? man or Washington? boy or Charles? Why?

6. What kind of nouns are those which designate individuals of a class! Why?

7. What is an abstract noun? A collective noun? A participial noun? A compound noun ?

See

*Indians is a common noun; the Indians would be a proper noun. The Narragansets is a proper noun; Narragansets would be a common noun. Remark 4, above.

+ Questions like these contained in the oral exercises should be multiplied until the learner is perfectly familiar with the subject under examination.

PROPERTIES OF NOUNS.

1. The term property, (Lat. proprius "peculiar to,") as applied to the noun or pronoun, signifies the quality of representing the number, sex, and certain relations, of objects.

2. The property of a noun or pronoun by which it designates the speaker, the person or thing spoken to, or spoken of, is called person.

3. Nouns which denote but one can be changed in their form so as to denote more than one; as, house denotes but one object, but when changed in form by adding s, (houses) it denotes more than one. The property or quality in a noun of distinguishing one from more than one, is called number."

This

4. One class of nouns presents the idea of male beings, another of female beings, another that the objects which they denote belong to neither sex. property in a noun of distinguishing the sex of objects, is called gender.

5. A noun in one position or relation in a sentence denotes the agent, or subject; in another position or state it denotes the object; in another, it denotes the possessor. This property of the noun or pronoun of denoting the condition or relation of objects is called case.

The properties of nouns and pronouns are person, number, gender and case.

§ 47. PERSON.

Person (Lat., persona, " character,") in Grammar signifies character or re lation. In conversing or writing there are three relations implied; viz: that of the one speaking, that of the one spoken to, and that which is spoken of.

1. The first relation or character is that of the speaker, who is denoted by the pronoun I.

NOTE. The name of the speaker is sometimes expressed after I; as, I, John saw these things.

2. The second relation or character is that of the person spoken to,* who is addressed by name, or by the pronouns you or thou.

3. The third relation is that of the person or thing spoken

* The name of the one addressed is not generally expressed, as this person is present with the speaker, and is designated by a look or gesture.