several great breeders in Scotland, who annually raise some thousand sheep, are firmly convinced that a larger proportion of males than of females die during the first year or two. Therefore the proportion of males would be somewhat larger at birth than at the age of castration. This is a remarkable coincidence with what, as we have seen, occurs with mankind, and both cases probably depend on the same cause. I have received returns from four gentlemen in England who have bred Lowland sheep, chiefly Leicesters, during the last ten to sixteen years; they amount altogether to 8,965 births, consisting of 4,407 males and 4,558 females; that is in the proportion of 96.7 males to 100 females. With respect to Cheviot and blackfaced sheep bred in Scotland, I have received returns from six breeders, two of them on a large scale, chiefly for the years 1867–69, but some of the returns extend back to 1862. The total number recorded amounts to 50,685, consisting of 25,071 males and 25,614 females, or in the proportion of 97.9 males to 100 females. If we take the English and Scotch returns together, the total number amounts to 59,650, consisting of 29,478 males and 30,172 females, or as 97.7 to 100. So that with sheep at the age of castration the females are certainly in excess of the males, but probably this would not hold good at birth. 59

Of Cattle I have received returns from nine gentlemen of 982 births, too few to be trusted; these consisted of 477 bull-calves and 505 cow-calves; i.e., in the proportion of 94.4 males to 100 females. The Rev. W. D. Fox informs me that in 1867, out of 34 calves born on a farm in Derbyshire, only one was a bull. Mr. Harrison Weir has inquired from several breeders of Pigs, and most of them estimate the male to the female births as about 7 to 6. This same gentleman has bred Rabbits for many years, and has noticed

59 I am much indebted to Mr. Cupples for having procured for me the above returns from Scotland, as well as some of the following returns on cattle. Mr. R. Elliot, of Laighwood, first called my attention to the premature deaths of the males a statement subsequently confirmed by Mr. Aitchison and others. To this latter gentleman, and to Mr. Payan, I owe my thanks for large returns as to sheep.

that a far greater number of bucks are produced than does. But estimations are of little value.

Of mammalia in a state of nature I have been able to learn very little. In regard to the common rat, I have received conflicting statements. Mr. R. Elliot, of Laighwood, informs me that a rat-catcher assured him that he had always found the males in great excess, even with the young in the nest. In consequence of this, Mr. Elliot himself subsequently examined some hundred old ones, and found the statement true. Mr. F. Buckland has bred a large number of white rats, and he also believes that the males greatly exceed the females. In regard to Moles, it is said that "the males are much more numerous than the females;" ,, 60 and as the catching of these animals is a special occupation the statement may perhaps be trusted. Sir A. Smith, in describing an antelope of South Africa1 (Kobus ellipsiprymnus), remarks that, in the herds of this and other species, the males are few in number compared with the females: the natives believe that they are born in this proportion; others believe that the younger males are expelled from the herds, and Sir A. Smith says that, though he has himself never seen herds consisting of young males alone, others affirm that this does occur. It appears probable that the young, when expelled from the herd, would often fall a prey to the many beasts of prey of the country.

Birds. With respect to the Fowl, I have received only one account, namely, that out of 1,001 chickens of a highly bred stock of Cochins, reared during eight years by Mr. Stretch, 487 proved males, and 514 females; i.e., as 94.7 to 100. In regard to domestic pigeons, there is good evidence either that the males are produced in excess, or that they live longer; for these birds invariably pair, and single males, as Mr. Tegetmeier informs me, can always be purchased cheaper than females. Usually the two birds reared

60 Bell, "History of British Quadrupeds," p. 100.

61 "Illustrations of the Zoology of S. Africa," 1849, pl. 29.

from the two eggs laid in the same nest are a male and a female; but Mr. Harrison Weir, who has been so large a breeder, says that he has often bred two cocks from the same nest, and seldom two hens; moreover, the hen is generally the weaker of the two, and more liable to perish.

62

63

With respect to birds in a state of nature, Mr. Gould and others are convinced that the males are generally the more numerous; and as the young males of many species resemble the females, the latter would naturally appear to be the more numerous. Large numbers of pheasants are reared by Mr. Baker, of Leadenhall, from eggs laid by wild birds, and he informs Mr. Jenner Weir that four or five males to one female are generally produced. An experienced observer remarks that in Scandinavia the broods of the capercailzie and blackcock contain more males than females; and that with the Dal-ripa (a kind of ptarmigan) more males than females attend the leks or places of courtship; but this latter circumstance is accounted for by some observers by a greater number of hen birds being killed by vermin. From various facts given by White, of Selborne," it seems clear that the males of the partridge must be in considerable excess in the south of England; and I have been assured that this is the case in Scotland. Mr. Weir, on inquiring from the dealers, who receive at certain seasons large numbers of ruffs (Machetes pugnax), was told that the males are much the more numerous. This same naturalist has also inquired for me from the bird-catchers, who annually catch an astonishing number of various small species alive for the London market, and he was unhesitatingly answered by an old and trustworthy man, that with the chaffinch the males are in large excess; he thought as high as 2 males to 1 female, or at least as high as 5 to 3." The males of

69 Brehm ("Illust. Thierleben," B. iv. s. 990) comes to the same conclusion. 63 On the authority of L. Lloyd, "Game Birds of Sweden," 1867, pp. 12, 132.

64 "Nat. Hist. of Selborne," letter xxix., edit. of 1825, vol. i. p. 139. 65 Mr. Jenner Weir received similar information, on making inquiries during the following year. To show the number of living chaffinches caught, I may

the blackbird, he likewise maintained, were by far the more numerous, whether caught by traps or by netting at night. These statements may apparently be trusted, because this same man said that the sexes are about equal with the lark, the twite (Linaria montana), and goldfinch. On the other hand, he is certain that with the common linnet the females preponderate greatly, but unequally during different years; during some years he has found the females to the males as four to one. It should, however, be borne in mind that the chief season for catching birds does not begin till September, so that with some species partial migrations may have begun, and the flocks at this period often consist of hens alone. Mr. Salvin paid particular attention to the sexes of the humming-birds in Central America, and he is convinced that with most of the species the males are in excess; thus one year he procured 204 specimens belonging to ten species, and these consisted of 166 males and of only 38 females. With two other species the females were in excess; but the proportions apparently vary either during different seasons or in different localities; for on one occasion the males of Campylopterus hemileucurus were to the females as 5 to 2, and on another occasion" in exactly the reversed ratio. As bearing on this latter point, I may add, that Mr. Powys found in Corfu and Epirus the sexes of the chaffinch keeping apart, and "the females by far the most numerous'; while in Palestine Mr. Tristram found "the male flocks appearing greatly to exceed the female in number."" So again with the Quiscalus major, Mr. G. Taylor says that in Florida there were "very few females in proportion to the males," while in Honduras the

mention that in 1869 there was a match between two experts, and one man caught in a day 62, and another 40, male chaffinches. The greatest number ever caught by one man in a single day was 70.

66 "Ibis," vol. ii. p. 260, as quoted in Gould's "Trochilidæ," 1861, p. 52. For the foregoing proportions I am indebted to Mr. Salvin for a table of his results.

67 "Ibis," 1860, p. 137; and 1867, p. 369.

68 "Ibis," 1862, p. 137.

proportion was the other way, the species there having the character of a polygamist.

Fish.-With Fish the proportional numbers of the sexes can be ascertained only by catching them in the adult or nearly adult state; and there are many difficulties in arriving at any just conclusion." Infertile females might readily be mistaken for males, as Dr. Günther has remarked to me in regard to trout. With some species the males are believed to die soon after fertilizing the ova. With many species the males are of much smaller size than the females, so that a large number of males would escape from the same net by which the females were caught. M. Carbonnier," who has especially attended to the natural history of the pike (Esox lucius), states that many males, owing to their small size, are devoured by the larger females; and he believes that the males of almost all fish are exposed from this same cause to greater danger than the females. Nevertheless, in the few cases in which the proportional numbers have been actually observed, the males appear to be largely in excess. Thus Mr. R. Buist, the superintendent of the Stormontfield experiments, says that in 1865, out of 70 salmon first landed for the purpose of obtaining the ova, upward of 60 were males. In 1867 he again "calls attention to the vast disproportion of the males to the females. We had at the outset at least ten males to one female." Afterward females sufficient for obtaining ova were procured. He adds, "from the great proportion of the males, they are constantly fighting and tearing each other on the spawning-beds."" This disproportion, no doubt, can be accounted for in part, but whether wholly is doubtful, by the males ascending the rivers before the females. Mr. F. Buckland remarks in regard to trout, that "it is a curious fact that the males

69 Leuckart quotes Bloch (Wagner, "Handwörterbuch der Phys.," B. iv., 1853, s. 775), that with fish there are twice as many males as females. 70 Quoted in the "Farmer," March 18, 1869, p. 369.

71 The Stormontfield Piscicultural Experiments," 1866, p. 23. The "Field" newspaper, June 29, 1867.