Without going into side by side for detailed examination. technicalities we may say that the appearances of these spectra" are sufficiently distinctive to enable us to group the stars into different classes according to the quality of their light. Those who have studied these questions are pretty well agreed that these classes or "types" represent different stages in the life of a star, and we may class the stars in this way as young, middle-aged or old. Now the remarkable result has been found that on the average the older a star is the faster it moves. I refer now not merely to its apparent displacement across the sky but to its actual speed in miles per second. There is a steady increase in the speed from about 6 km. per second for the youngest stars to 17 km. per second for the oldest.* That is true provided that you take the average of a considerable number of stars; of course, speeds of individual stars may differ widely from the average of their type. I have only described to you our studies of the movements of the stars. In another branch of the subject parallel investigations are being made of the distribution and magnitudes of the stars, which are also extending our knowledge of the stellar universe. It appears from these that we are in the midst of a great mass of stars arranged in an oblate or flattened shape, something like a bun, or perhaps a lens. We are somewhere towards the middle of this distribution. In its thinnest direction our telescopes penetrate quite easily to the limits, or rather to the place where the stars thin out very much, for we cannot suppose there is a definite edge. Round the circumference of this mass, and continuing its plane, are coiled a great series of star-clouds which appear to us as the Milky Way. The whole structure would probably bear some resemblance to one of the flat spiral nebula which form such remarkable objects in the sky. We know scarcely anything about these spiral nebulæ, but the question suggests itself, may they not be replicas of our own stellar system? That is to say, island universes, not contained among the stars but separated from them at a much greater distance than any we have yet spoken of? There are some hundreds of thousands of these spiral nebulæ, so that the conception is almost appalling in its vastness. Suppose that * I have given, in accordance with the usual practice, the average value of one component of the motion, e.g., the velocity of recession or approach. The three-dimensional speeds are twice the values given. each one of them is a great system, equal to the great system of hundreds of millions of stars that we have hitherto considered. The name "nebula" has been used to denote a number of celestial objects having entirely different characters; the great gaseous irregular nebulæ, such as that in Orion, are undoubtedly within the stellar system; but the spiral nebulæ are not at all of the same character, and we have as yet no evidence as to whether they are within or without the system. The spiral nebulæ are a great puzzle; if they are not other universes, it is hard to say what they are. Many astronomers consider that we should not let our imaginations run to such grandiose ideas until we have some clear evidence that they cannot be within our own system. The stellar system is vast enough beyond conception. Can we not be content with it? Must we still run on "From star to star, from kindred sphere to sphere, I do not agree with this prohibition; it seems to me that in the absence of definite information we may, nay we must, keep both alternatives before us. And for the moment the idea that the nebulæ are stellar universes co-equal with our own seems to present great advantages as a working hypothesis. It suggests a model of our own system which we can try to follow out and test. For instance, Mr. Easton has discussed how the Milky Way works out in detail on the assumption that it is the outer part of a spiral. Again, all the spiral nebulæ known are double spirals, that is to say, they have two arms. We do not understand the dynamics of spiral nebulæ, but I think it is clear that matter must be flowing in along the two arms, or flowing outit does not matter which. Let us suppose it is flowing in. Now, taking the stars in our own neighbourhood, will there not be some trace there of the two opposing currents which flow in from opposite directions? That gives us a possible interpretation of the two star-streams as due to the two arms of the spiral. Moreover, the line of flow is-as it should be-exactly in the plane of the spiral, i.e., of the Milky Way. That is at least one point in favour of the island universe theory. Marcus Aurelius wrote in his "Meditations "Now among them that were yet of a more excellent nature, as the starres and planets, though by their nature farre distant from one another, even among them beganne some mutual correspondencie and unitie." (Casaubon's translation.) We have long ago learnt to recognize that the planets are mutually related and form a system governed by a simple physical law; but among the stars the "mutual correspondencie and unitie" has been hard to find. I do not think we shall ever see in the great stellar universe that harmony of movement which prevails in our own little system; there will be no music of the spheres; but we are learning that there are associations, vague though they may be, which bind star to star and unite even the most distant of them into some kind of an organization. DISCUSSION. The CHAIRMAN invited the Meeting to return their cordial thanks to Professor Eddington for the admirable Lecture to which they had just listened. They were particularly grateful to him for taking their minds away from the War and all its sorrows and anxieties and turning their thoughts to so lofty and attractive a subject. Professor Eddington had referred to the researches of several other astronomers in this particular field of astronomy, but he had been silent as to his own work. But this enquiry into the existence and relationships of stellar systems, as evidenced by the movements of stars, was one in which Professor Eddington had done especially valuable work. Earlier in the year Professor Fowler had shown the Institute how the evidence of the spectroscope as to the constitution of the stars pointed to the unity of the stellar universe; now, from a line of evidence quite distinct in character, that unity was shown from the mutual correspondences in the movements of the stars. Mr. MAUNDER said: A well-known astronomer not very long ago expressed the fear that the progress of the science would inevitably slacken because the number of data which were being accumulated would greatly exceed the power of scientific men to discuss them. Fortunately, we possess men who are able enough and bold enough to tackle these problems. Thus in three succeeding Sessions of the Victoria Institute we have been favoured by addresses from Dr. Chapman, Professor Fowler and Professor Eddington, each dealing with a special aspect of the problem of the sidereal universe; each a chief worker in the department which he expounded. Dr. Chapman showed the Institute how the number of the stars had been determined; Professor Fowler placed before us the evidence of the chemical unity of the stars, and the course of the successive changes through which they passed. And now Professor Eddington has revealed to us the evidence which the movements of the stars supply as to the form and structure of the sidereal universe. These three remarkable addresses, all in different ways from different lines of evidence, lead up to one and the same conclusion the whole celestial universe forms but a single organic structure. I have great pleasure in seconding the vote of thanks to Professor Eddington. The CHAIRMAN said that the lecture to which they had listened was scarcely one for discussion in the ordinary sense, but if any members present had any questions which they wished to ask, he was sure that Professor Eddington would be pleased to answer them. A number of questions were accordingly asked by the Rev. J. J. B. COLES, the Rev. Canon E. MCCLURE, Professor LANGHORNE ORCHARD, Mr. M. L. ROUSE, and others. Professor EDDINGTON, in replying to these enquiries, stated that some of the eighteen observatories engaged on the Astrographic Chart had completed their share of the work; others were very much in arrear, and it was to be feared that the war would greatly postpone its completion. With regard to variation in the law of gravitation throughout the universe, it was difficult to determine what would be the relation between the particles of matter in a nebula. With regard to the suggestion made by Mr. Shaw in a recent paper before the Royal Society as to the possibility of the constant of gravitation changing with the temperature, he felt it very unlikely that astronomers would accept it. As to the place of the sun, it did not appear to be a member of either of the two streams which he had described. In reply to Professor Langhorne Orchard, astronomers of course meant by "the " the of the sun age stage of development which it appeared to have attained. To Mr. Rouse the reply was that there was no significant relation between the poles of the Milky Way and of the Ecliptic. The pole of the Milky Way appeared to be in the constellation Coma Berenices. A very hearty vote of thanks was returned by the Meeting to the Lecturer, and the Meeting adjourned at 6 p.m. 574TH ORDINARY GENERAL MEETING. HELD IN COMMITTEE ROOM B, THE CENTRAL HALL, WESTMINSTER, ON MONDAY, JANUARY 17TH, 1916, AT 4.30 P.M. A. W. OKE, Esq., B.A., LL.M., IN THE CHAIR. The Minutes of the preceding Meeting were read and confirmed. The SECRETARY announced the election of Mr. Benjamin Akhurst, the Rev. John William Fairhurst, the Rev. Matthew Butterworth Moorhouse, and the Rev. P. Rose, as Associates of the Institute, and of the Rev. Isaac Levinson as Missionary Associate. The CHAIRMAN asked Mr. E. J. Sewell to address the Meeting on the subject of "The Principles governing Bible Translation." THE PRINCIPLES GOVERNING BIBLE TRANSLATION. By E. J. SEWELL, Esq. T RANSLATION of the Bible is a special case of the problem of translation from one language into another; it would be quite logical, therefore, to begin by setting out the general principles of translation and then discussing the limitations or qualifications of these general principles required when they are applied to translations of the Bible. The writer proposes almost to reverse this order, for it appears to him that by so doing not only will the paper be shortened but we shall come at once to close quarters with the really crucial questions which are raised when we come to consider the character of the Bible and the purposes for which translations of it are required. It is usual to begin discussions either of the interpretation or translation of the Bible by the statement that the Bible is a book and must be dealt with like other books. Το the writer this sentence seems to contain a serious misstatement and a fallacy. The Bible is not a book: The Old Testament is itself a literature-nearly all that is left of ancient Hebrew literature-and even the New Testament contains, beside straightforward narrative, hymns, parables, closely reasoned argument, passionate pleading, and the poetical and highly imaginative prose of the Apocalypse; all these are |