"Sartor Resartus" gathers up the best he had thought and lived, and epitomizes his future works. Its central thought; man, a spirit, clothes himself in institutions, customs, etc.

For "The French Revolution" he had made preparation by earlier studies in biography. Carlyle's attitude towards the French Revolution: studious, seeking in it lessons for his own time. His conclusion is that the selfishness of rulers invites destruction, while anarchy leads to despotism.

"Chartism" concludes that popular agitations are evil, and proposes as remedy a beneficent government from above. "Heroes and Hero-Worship" shows the range of Carlyle's interests by his choice of heroes. The "great-man theory” of history is central in his system. Society having reached the "Hero as King,” the problem is, how to elevate the able-man. "Past and Present" compares the twelfth century with the nineteenth, and discovers aristocracy of actual leaders versus one of Laissez-faire; bonds of mutual interest versus cash payment as the sole nexus of man to man"; and religion as fear of God's judgment versus fear of financial failure. Its problem is, "How to deal with the actual laboring millions of England." "Latter Day Pamphlets" only tend to more explicit statement of some of his social views, already stated or implied.

"Life and Letters of Cromwell" and "History of Frederick II.," monuments of historic writing, occupy much of his later life. History is again used for the instruction of the present. "Life of John Sterling" and "The Early Kings of Norway" are important, but of secondary interest.

"Reminiscences" and "Correspondence" pertain more to a study of the man than of his messages, which are frankly and fully given in his writings.

"The Nigger Question" and "Shooting Niagara" may be studied as his latter works on social movements.

V. Carlyle's social messages.—He was not a political philosopher, nor a political economist, but a social moralist. Concerned not with forms, but tasks of government, so his

attitude towards democracy partly explained. View-point that of the working classes, their welfare is his purpose. Messages: The worth of man-arising from his deep religious consciousness; need of moral regeneration of society; the responsibility and task of governing classes; need of loyalty to great leaders; the greatest nobleness versus the greatest happiness theory as an interpretation of life; demand for close human relationship. Practical program: awakening of ruling class to its responsibility; education; socially organized emigration, and labor.

VI. Criticism of social views.—Weakness of absolute individualism; depreciates collective wisdom of society; lacks sympathy with reform movements; misunderstands democracy; fails to see the place of conscious principles in social development.

VII. Messages to the twentieth century.-His value that of stimulating and challenging, rather than directing society; vitality as a thinker shown in the pertinency of his writings to our time; welfare of labor the chief concern in periods of industrial change; man not a mere "hand" of industry, with needs not met by material goods; the divine law, often forgotten, as the real basis of institutions; the task of government, even in a democracy, the welfare of all people; duty, work, and righteousness more important than happiness; fraternity, vital human relationship, increasingly important with every advance of industrial organization; Carlyle's practical program, already partly fulfilled, may have value for the future of society.

TOPICS.

1. Effects of education and studies upon Carlyle's social attitude and views.

2. Social movements of England in Carlyle's time, and his reaction upon them.

3. Comparative study of "Sartor Resartus" and "Past and Present."

4. Comparison of Carlyle and Hugo as social prophets.

5. Carlyle as an interpreter of personal character or of history.

6. Statement and criticism of Carlyle's social views.

READINGS.

** Garnett, R., Life of Thomas Carlyle. (Walter Scott, London; A. Lovell & Co., agents, New York. 40 cents.)

Nichol, John, Thomas Carlyle.

Froude, J. A., Thomas Carlyle: A History of the First Forty Years of His Life: A History of His Life in London.

Carlyle, T., Reminiscences, edited by Froude.

Roberts, J. M., In Modern Humanists. (Swan Sonenschein, London, 1897.)

* Stephen, Leslie, Carlyle. In Dictionary of National Biography. Also in the Warner Library.

* Scudder, Vida D., Social Ideals in English Letters. Chapter viii. (Houghton, Mifflin & Co.)

*Taine, H. A., Carlyle. In History of English Literature. Book V, Chapter iv.

** Mazzini, Joseph, "The Writings of Thomas Carlyle," and "Carlyle's History of the French Revolution," in Essays, edited by Wm. Clarke.

WORKS.

Complete Works. Various Publishers.

For special study: Sartor Resartus, The French Revolution, Heroes and Hero-Worship, and particularly Past and Present.

LECTURE IV.

Lyof N. Tolstoy (1828-) and the Social Message of Christianity.

“I became aware of the lie of our life, thanks to those sufferings to which my wrong road led me; and having acknowledged the error of the way on which I was bent, I had the boldness to go, first in theory, then in reality, wherever my reason and conscience led me, without any deliberation as to whither they were tending. And I was

rewarded."-What Is To Be Done.

OUTLINE OF THE LECTURE.

I. Introduction.-Vastness and complexity of modern life makes it increasingly difficult to see life steadily and to see it whole. Even nations emphasize each but an aspect of truth. Tolstoy peculiarly a national prophet, expressing one aspect of its life. Loss in inclusiveness of view compensated by vividness and intensity. Tolstoy's criticism of civilization the more valuable because he sees it partly from a distance.

II. Russia in the nineteenth century.-Eastern heritage commingles with western life. Its Christianity, formal, of the Greek type, dates only from the tenth century, and has known no Protestant revolt. Present government arising out of Oriental dominion, preserves the older form. The aristocracy of Russia, compared with England, is necessarily more meaningless. European influences, strong in the eighteenth century, were checked by national movement early in the nineteenth, only to be renewed later, but with opposition. Romanticism accompanied the national movement. Realism, early developed, is in part a reaction against French ideals. Tolstoy's realistic predecessors and contemporaries take up social agitation. Tolstoy must be interpreted upon such a background.

III. Tolstoy's life is his greatest contribution. His writings are an out-flowing from it. Aristocratic birth and training. Orphaned in childhood. Studies with tutors, at the University of Kazan, and again with tutors. Later studies the more intense. Soldier's life in the Caucasus and at Sevastopol. Literary life, already successful, continued at St. Petersburg. European travel. Educational labor for his serfs. Marriage and following years of comparative internal rest; followed by period of intense struggle, culminating in his "conversion." Adopts the Christianity of Christ. Assumes the task of religious, moral and social reformer, to which later years have been given.

IV. Tolstoy's writings fully express his changing attitudes. Until his marriage they breathe his restless seeking. "The Cossacks" and "Childhood, Boyhood and Youth" display his reaction against the upper classes, and contain germs of later teachings. From his marriage to his "conversion" a deepening discontent is evident. "Peace and War" and "Anna Karenina" reveal a more profound moral reaction upon social conditions. His conscious apostolate, following the "conversion," begins with religious and moral protest, and becomes increasingly social in significance. Tracts for the people,

treatises for the educated, and novels are used to enforce his deepening views. The church, civilization, industry, education, government, all pass under the searchlight of his new position. His message well given in "Master and Man"the theme of self-sacrifice; "The Death of Ivan Ilyitch"-the man who had never lived; "Kreutzer Sonata "—with chastity as a corrective of luxury; and "Resurrection "—dealing with self-recovery and social justice, gained through service. All of Tolstoy's writings are frankly autobiographic, and studied in their order reveal the development of his thought.

V. Tolstoy's social messages must be interpreted through his "return to nature," not the savage state of Rousseau, but primitive Russian life, seen through the medium of the New Testament. Messages: Work, escaping which the useless upper classes become corrupt, and burden the workers; Life's infinite meaning, to ignore which is to degrade it; Renunciation, or the social message of Christianity, the way to equality in a world of want, where luxury becomes a sin; Non-resistance, as a remedy for injustice, which rests on force, and as a means to universal peace; Fraternity, economic equality, to be gained by renunciation and universal labor, must serve the spiritual brotherhood of man; Chastity, as a socially necessary virtue, out of which shall come woman's true emancipation, and the correction of meaningless luxury.

VI. Criticism of Tolstoy's social views. His diagnosis of social ills is not wholly true: peasant view-point, not inclusively human, causes him to depreciate the possible benefits of civilization for all people. A Russian product, pertaining especially to Russian conditions, Tolstoy's views lack, even for that country, correction in the larger world's experience. His individualism furnishes insufficient remedy for evils which are social in cause and nature. His life-ideal, being peasant and primitive, is inadequate even for the masses, to-day. His interpretation of Christianity, as of civilization, eliminates the possibility of progress.

VII. Messages to the twentieth century.-When criticism has