and a nation to restore them brightened and purified to the length and breadth of Hindostan, their original home and starting point.

APPENDIX A.

Schools of Philosophy.

Six different schools of Hindoo philosophy are enumerated; all of them have one and the same starting point, namely, ex nihilo nihil fit; and all the same ultimate object, namely, the emancipation of the soul from future birth and existence, and its absorption into the supreme soul of the universe. These schools are:

1. Nyaya, founded by Gotama; called also the Logical School. It is said to represent the sensational aspect of Hindoo philosophy.

2. Vaiseshika, founded by the sage Kanada, about the same date as the preceding. It is called the Atomic School, because it teaches the existence of a transient world composed of an aggregation of atoms.

Both of these schools recognise a Supreme Being.

3. Sankhya, founded by the sage Kapila. It is atheistical in its teachings, and takes it name froin its numeral or discriminative tendencies.

4. Yoga, founded by Patanjah, whose name it also takes. It is theistical in its teachings. It asserts the existence not only of individual souls, but of one all-pervading spirit, which is free from the influences which affect other souls.

The

5. Purva-mimansa. 6. Uttara-mimansa. The prior and later mimansas; they are both included under the general term Vedanta, "the end or object of the vedas.' former was founded by Jaimini, a disciple of Vyasa (arranger of the vedas); the latter by Vyasa himself. The principal doctrine inculcated in both is that "God is the omniscient and omnipotent cause of the existence, continuance, and dissolution of the universe; that creation is an act of his will, that he is the efficient and material cause of the world; that, at the consummation of all things, all are resolved into him. He is the sole-existent and universal soul, and besides him there is no second principle."

The period of the rise of these schools is assumed by Indian scholars to be about the fifth century B.C. and even

later. With reference to the doctrines expressed in them, it has been questioned whether they were more or less due to Greek influence; but Mr. Colebrook, the highest authority on the subject, is of opinion that in this instance the Hindoos were the teachers, not the learners.

Besides the six schools enumerated, there is a later system, known as the Puranik, and the Eclectic. The doctrines therein expressed have been obtained from the Mahabarata. They inculcate the doctrines of Bhakti, i.e., faith; and exalt the duties of caste above all other obligations, including those of friendship and kindred. Its philosophy is pantheistic; but it claims "adoration as one with the great universal spirit pervading and constituting the universe."*

APPENDIX B.

Comparative Mythology.

Between the mythology of the Hindoos and that of the ancient Greeks and Romans an affinity has been discovered of so conspicuous a character as in the opinion of various competent writers to point to the existence of a distinct connection between them. A few examples must here suffice

In Ganesa, the god of wisdom of the Puranas, we discover some characteristics of Janus of the Romans. Manu or Satyavrata, child of the Sun, otherwise Time personified, represented by Saturn.

Yama or Dharma Rajah, god of the dead brother of Manu or Time, otherwise Minos, supposed son of Jove. The triple divinity of Brahma, the great law-giver, Vishnu, the preserver, and Siva or Mahadeo, the destroyer or regenerator, as Jupiter, "father of gods and men," that trinity being worshipped under various names. As Siva destroyed the Daityas or children of Diti who rebelled against heaven, so Jupiter, in his capacity of avenger or destroyer, overthrew the Titans and Giants. As Vishnu is sometimes represented as riding on Garuda, a species of eagle, as Brahma presented Sira with fiery shafts, so did an eagle bring lightning and thunderbolts to Jupiter. Siva is represented as having had three eyes; a statue of Jupiter (Zeus) is said to have been discovered at the capture of Troy, B.C. 1184, having a third eye in the forehead, signifying that he reigned in heaven, in the infernal regions, and over the waters. Sira also, as Mahadeo

* From Dawson's Dictionary of Hindoo Mythology.

the destroyer, corresponds with the Stygian Jove, or Pluto. Kali, or Time personified, consort of Siva, subsequently to appear as Proserpine. Furthermore, in his capacity as regenerator or producer, Siva is represented as riding on a white bull, a circumstance which leads to the question, does the myth typify the approach of Jupiter in the form of a white bull to Europa? Yet another question presents itself: Does Mahadeo represented with the trisula prefigure Jupiter Marinus, otherwise Neptune with his trident? The veneration paid all over India to the buccinum or conch-shell, especially that in which the convolutions are reversed, recalls to mind the musical instrument of the Triton. Bhawan, consort of Mahadeo, has been reproduced, so it is at least suggested, in Venus Marina, and the Runbah of Indra's court, who sprang from the froth of the churned ocean, in the popular Venus as goddess of beauty, who rose from out of the sea foam, also as Juno Canixa or Lucina of the Romans. Under the name of Iswara she seems to have affinities to Osiris and Isis of the Egyptians; under that of Doorga to resemble Minerva as Pallas, while the unarmed Minerva as patroness of science and genius is considered as corresponding to Suruswatee, the daughter of Brahma and wife of Vishnu. The Minerva of Athens was named Musica; Suruswatee presides over melody, and is usually represented with a musical instrument in her hand.

Cuvera, named also Vetesa and Paneastaya, the Indian Plutus, is represented as being borne through the sky in a splendid car, and is himself described as "a magnificent. deity."

Cama, or Camadeva, the Indian god of love, was the ideal of Cupid, otherwise Eros. The Hindoos represented Camadeva* as riding on an elephant; the Eros of the Greeks was mounted on a lion.

Krishna, believed by pious Hindoos to have been an incarnation of Vishnu, and to have come among mankind as the son of Divaci Vasudeva, in his manifestation as Gopal, or the shepherd, was believed to be represented by the pastoral Apollo, Nomius, or Pan. When a boy, Krishna slew the terrible serpent Kaliya. Nomius, who fed the flocks of Admetus, slew the serpent Python.

* In some representations of his elephant, the body, limbs, and trunk of the animal are composed of the figures of young women, entwined in so whimsical but ingenious a manner as to exhibit its shape. Craufurd, vol. i, p. 112.

Agni (Ignis), the personification of fire, named also Pavaca, or the purifier; represented as having been uncreate, was one of the Vedic deities, the other two being respectively Indra, called also Vayu and Surya. Agni appears to have affinity to the Fulcan of Egypt, who was a deity of high rank, whereas the Vulcan of Greece, otherwise Hephaistos, was merely a forger of arms. According to other authors, Viswacarma, the fabricator of arms used in the wars by the Dewatas against the Assours, otherwise by the good spirits against the evil, more closely coincides with the characteristics assigned to the Egyptian Vulcan. The Persians held fire sacred prior to the date B.C. 2066, namely that of Zoroaster. The pyrtanoi of the Greeks were of the nature of perpetual fire.

Swaha, the sacti, spirit, or wife of Agni, seems to correspond to the younger l'esta of the Romans, or Vestia, as the Eolians pronounced the Greek word for hearth.

Indra, or Iswara, god of the visible heavens, also the sky and rain, represented as having had a father and a mother; of endless forms; of a golden or ruddy colour; armed with a thunderbolt and a net; his golden car drawn by two tawny horses; attended by his dog, Sarama (or the dawn?), himself drinking the intoxicating soma, the amrita, or water of immortality; his terrestrial residence, the Himalayahs, or Mountains of Snow. In these characteristics, Indra is believed to have been represented by Jupiter and Olympus.

Vayu, personification of the wind, and is generally associated with Indra. Also called Pavana, the purifier, Gandha Vaha, the bearer of perfumes, Satata-Ga, the everlasting, and Vata, the wind.

The Hindoo Ayodhyia, or the conqueror Dionysius, is believed to correspond to Bacchus. The story of Rama and Sita, representing the expedition of this hero against Ravanu, King of Lunka or Ceylon, is believed by some modern writers to have supplied the type of the abduction of Helen by Paris, and subsequent Trojan War. Surya. or the Sun, was believed to be represented by Phoebus and Apollo of the Greeks. Surya is represented as sitting in a car drawn by a horse with twelve heads, and preceded by Arun, or the dawn. Each of the two sons, Aswinan, of Surya are considered to have had the character of Esculapius, or of Apollo, in his healing quality; and, moreover, from Surya is considered to have descended the higher Hindoo, or, as they are proudly called, the great Solar race of men. The wife of Surya was Sangya, the mother of the river Jumua.

S

Chandra, or the Moon, was considered to be a form of Iswara, the god of nature (masculine Isani), his consort, in one of her characters the type of Luna of the Romans, Lunus of the Palmyrans.

Kali, the wife of Siva, appears to have been represented by Hecate and by Proserpine, daughter of Ceres, the transposition being accounted for by the fact that the apparent destruction of matter signifies no more than that the same matter is reproduced in a different form. As Bhawani she has been already mentioned; other names she bears are Parvati and Durga. As emblematical of eternity, by which her husband, or time, is destroyed, the representations of Kali and Siva are for the most part associated in sculptures and pictures. In Egyptian symbolic inscriptions the snake has ever been the emblem of eternity. As Parvati, many of the qualities of the Olympian Juno occur in Kali; she is usually attended by her son Kartikia, who rides on a peacock.

Kartikyia, with his six faces and numerous eyes, bears some resemblance to Argus. He is considered to be the same as Orus of Egypt, Cupid of the Romans, and Apollo of the Greeks. Like the latter, he was skilled in the healing art.

Nared, a son of Brahma, has been compared with Hermes or Mercury.

Lakshmi, daughter of Bhrigu, wife of Vishnu, and goddess of beauty; named also Myrionyma, Sris, and Sri. Her representations are very similar to those of Ceres; also to those of Venus Aphrodite of the Greeks, and to Isis of the Egyptians. Among the Hindoos Lakshmi is looked upon as the goddess of harvests and abundance. She is represented as "sitting upon a lotus, and resplendent as the sun." The lotus (Nymphaa lotus) is held sacred to her in Hindostan, as the same plant, or the Nelumbium, is also sacred in Tibet and Nepal.

The Lingam is believed to have been represented by Phallus, son of Bacchus and Venus, worshipped at Lampsacus, on the Hellespont. The seven lamps used when that emblem was worshipped by Brahmins "exactly resemble the candelabra of the Jews, as seen in the triumphal arch of Titus."*

* Craufurd, vol. i, p. 140.