THE

NEW CRATYLUS.

BOOK II.

PRONOMINAL WORDS.

CHAPTER I.

THE PERSONAL AND OTHER PRONOUNS.

129 Ultimate analysis of pronominal words discovered by Bopp. 130Principles of arrangement and classification of the pronominal elements first suggested by the present Author. 131 General view of the pronominal combinations in the Greek Language. 132 Objective cases of the three personal pronouns. 133 Nominatives of the first and second pronouns. 134 Lengthened forms of the objective cases, supplied by Bentley's view of the Homeric possessive. 135 Demonstrative force of first and second personal pronouns. 136 Plural and dual forms of the first and second pronouns. 137 The nominative, masculine and feminine, of the third personal pronoun. 138 The combinations av-tós and ov-tos. 139 The nominative and its affinities. 140 Demonstrative use of the Greek reflexive; 141 Its confusion of number and gender; 142 Its vague application to different persons. 143 Identity of opέ and . 144 Doric inversions yέ, yív. 145 Indefinite, interrogative, and relative pronouns all referable to the second element: 146 Their forms in Latin; 147 In Sanscrit. 148 Connexion of the relative and demonstrative in Greek. 149 Guttural origin of tis. 150 Demonstrative use of the guttural pronouns. 151 General conclusion respecting the pronouns. 152 Pronominal adjectives.

129 IN the Indo-Germanic languages, considered in their most ancient form, we can always resolve the pronouns into the shortest possible words, monosyllables for instance, or even single vowels; but in the latter case we have, of course, derivative forms, for, as we have shown before, no single vowel can exist in the first instance without at least an initial breathing: in fact, the primitive pronouns must have been very simple words, for the first and easiest articulations would naturally be adopted to express the primary intuition of space. These little vocables denote only the immediate relations of locality; and to designate

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all the subordinate varieties of position and direction, it is the custom, especially in the Greek language, to join together the different pronouns, or different modifications of the same pronominal stem, till at last we arrive at long words, like ôó-tɩs-dýTо-Tε, every syllable of which is a distinct pronoun

The first principles of this ultimate analysis of all pronominal words were discovered by Francis Bopp. In his essay Ueber den Einfluss der Pronomina auf die Wortbildung (Berlin, 1832), he remarks (p. 13): "From the dissection of the pronouns and the prepositions connected with them, we get the following monosyllabic stems, partly consisting of a mere vowel, which either occur in Sanscrit only, or are found in the connected European languages with more or less exact correspondence in form: a, i, u, ê; ka, ki, ku; na, ni, nu; ma, mi, (-), mu; ya, yu; va, vi; ta, da, sa. The compound pronounsmeaning thereby not derivatives like tâ-vat, ‘so much,' but primitives, which the grammarians consider as simple, but which we have endeavoured to reduce into their real elements-show as their first member, in Sanscrit, a stem consisting of a single vowel; they are the following, a-va, i-va, ê-va, a-na, ê-na, a-da, i-da, ê-ta, ê-ka, ê-sha.” But, although this analysis was pointed out many years ago, and though the importance of these researches was soon afterwards recognised and explained by Mr. Garnett (Quarterly Review, Vol, LVII. p.80 sqq.; Essays, pp. 96 sqq.), no one* has thoroughly examined, compared, and classified these monosyllabic stems and others which Bopp has omitted to mention; we shall therefore endeavour to show which of these pronominal words have a common origin, and thus to arrange them according to their natural coherency. (See below, § 169.)

130 It is reasonable to suppose that the primitive pronouns would be designations of here and there, of the subject and object as contrasted and opposed to one another. As soon as language becomes a medium of communication between two speaking persons (and it is useless to consider it before it arrives at this point), a threefold distinction at once arises between the

*These words, which appeared in the two former editions, are still applicable.

here or subject, the there or object, and the person spoken to, or considered as a subjectin himself, though an object in regard to the speaker. We find traces in the Indo-Germanic languages of an application of the first three consonant-sounds belonging to this family of languages, namely, the three tenues, to denote these three positions of here, near to the here, and there, or first, second, and third personal pronouns, as they are generally called. These tenues, articulated with the usual short vowel, are the three pronominal elements pa (found in лα-qά, &c.), qva or ka (found in xé, &c.), and ta (tó, &c.). The two former are, however, more usually expressed by the cognate sounds ma or va, and by Fa whether the digamma is represented by one or by both of its members (above, § 110). By a similar change of articulation the third element appears as na. If now we take the elements enumerated by Bopp, we shall find, that, according to the principles stated in a former chapter, ma, mi, mu, va, vi, belong to the first of them; ka, ki, ku, ya, yu, ê=aiya, i, u, to the second; and ta, nu, ni, na, to the third of the original pronouns. The second also appears under the forms ga, ha, immediately derived from qua or Fa. The syllables da, tha, and sa, for reasons which will be stated in a subsequent chapter, generally belong to the second pronoun, though the two former would seem to be only slight variations of the element ta, and the pronoun sa is actually used for the third pronoun when that pronoun denotes a person. or subject. From va, as a variation of ma the first pronominal element, we must carefully distinguish the same syllable when it appears as a mutilation of Fa, the second element; but there are some cases in which this distinction cannot be made without the most refined etymological analysis. And here we will anticipate what will be stated hereafter more at length. According to the principle mentioned above, any one of these simple elements may be compounded with any one of the others so as to form new modifications of the idea of position. There is, as we shall see, a pronominal element -la or -ra, derived from na, but indicating motion, or conveying the idea of "beyond." When this is added to the first pronominal element, it combines the idea of closeness with that of removal, as in лα-оά, ε-Qi, which express motion from or to the side of, and motion close round an object. When with the second, it expresses the third

position as opposed to the second, and tva-ra, as we shall see in the following chapter, is equivalent to ta, which indicates the third position, i. e. the second position in a state of further removal. On the contrary, by combining the third pronominal element with the first, under the form of ma, we obtain a signification of nearness approaching to, or even coinciding with that of the second element: thus ta-ma, the suffix of the superlative, expresses the approximation of the end of a series to the speaker, and, conversely, ma-ta denotes the approach of the speaker to a distant object*. We shall see in the next chapter that the first three numerals are the primary pronouns under the forms ma, tva, and tra-ra. The elements va and na are both employed to designate the first person, though always in the dual or plural number. They are also used to convey the strongest signification of the demonstrative pronoun, that of distance or separation. This coincidence in meaning between the first pronominal element under the form ma, va, with the third personal pronoun na, is explicable psychologically, from the fact that the ideas of self, unity, separation, distance, solitude, and negation, all spring from a common source. The element na is an emphatic expression of the there, or distance; ma, &c. of the here or self as a separate individuality. Hence, the strongest predication of self in these languages is, in Sanscrit and Latin, a-ha-m, e-go-met, "that which is here," but in Greek ¿-yo-vn, "that which is by itself or separate." The apparent coincidence of va and na, as expressive of negation, is found only in the longer forms a-va or a-u, and a-na or a-n, ultimately represented by a- or even e-. But we hope to show in the following pages that na or ana is actually prefixed to va when the compound a-va or a-pa bears the negative signification.

131 We have thus stated beforehand the results of our analysis of the pronominal words, in order that the student may be provided with a general map of the country which he is about to survey, and, knowing what to look for, may not be confused by the multiplicity of details. We now proceed to examine

The student will find these principles categorically set forth and illustrated in our Greek Grammar, articles 63-79, 356, 357.