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Although δειλός seems to stand in a certain opposition to δεινός, these words are easily reconcileable according to the principle of contrast, which cannot depend upon the termination, for Exnay-λos= ἔκπλαγ-λος corresponds in meaning to δει-νός; and they are brought together in the Latin di-rus, which answers to da-vós, just as conversely mag-nus does to uɛyá-λo-. Then, in the Greek language itself we may compare ὄργα-νον with κρότα-λον, σείστρον ὀρο-νός and ὀρφανός with τυφ-λος; λυγρός with στυγνός; ἐχθρός with [ἐ]ξένος ; κα-λός and καθα-ρός with και-νός; οἰκτ-ρός with ἐλεεινός; and many others, which clearly show that the terminations -λos, -pos, -vos, agree in expressing objective relations, or in denoting that an object presents itself to our observation a shaving a certain capability or use. To these special instances we must add the general fact that the use of o- as an affix indicating motion or conveying the idea of "beyond" (§ 130) is in strict accordance with the use of -v, to mark the accusative, as the case of motion towards an object.

It will perhaps be regarded as an important confirmation of this view, that the only Latin and Greek pronouns which exhibit the liquid 7, λ—namely, ille or ollus and alius, äλlos-are manifestly derived from άvá-Fa-vá (§ 116), so that xɛi-vos and ille correspond not only in meaning (§ 135), but, ultimately, in form. We have a slighter evidence of the same kind in the use of the liquid by the Hebrews to express the most emphatic employment of the IndoGermanic pronoun n- (above, § 184).

269 But we rest our demonstration of the identity of the pronominal elements 2, o, v chiefly on the extensive and essential correspondences of their use as verbal roots. And, first, with regard to the identity of 2- and o- as they appear in verbs.

The intensive particle ga, which belongs to this family, seems to convey the idea of facility, easy motion, and so forth. We have accordingly recognised its connexion with gέ-av, og-dios, &c. Now there are two Sanscrit verbal roots with the same meaning, ri and sri, both signifying "to go." We do not conceive that the sibilant prefixed to the second interferes with its relationship to the first. The present of sri is sarâmi=adeo aliquem. This word is of course related to deserere, salire. We consider too that conserere and consulere are the same word. "Without doubt," says Niebuhr (Hist. of Rome, I. p. 512), "the name consules means nothing more than simply colleagues: the syllable sul is found in præsul and exsul, where it signifies one who is: thus consules is tantamount to consentes, the name given to Jupiter's council of gods." This is not altogether

accurate*: the word consentes means "those who are together" (compare ab-sentes, præ-sentes): consules, "those who go together," præsul, "he who goes before," exsul, "he who goes out." That the Romans habitually spoke of "going," where we should rather indicate "being," is sufficiently proved by the words in it-, as paries, aries, miles, pedes, eques, &c. If sa-li-re, se-re-re are the same word, li and re must be the same root, and therefore lev-is and rap-idus are connected. The former contains the root 2ɛF, which we shall show in a future chapter in all its various uses. It signifies both "to see" and "to take;" we have the former meaning, e. g. in d-q(~)xw; the latter in rap-io, rap-idus, and lev-is, lev-are. We may also compare Sanscrit vrikas (Sabine hirpus=virpus, or vripus or irpus, Lithuan. wilkas, Latin lupus, Goth. vulfs) with the Greek λú-xos, the connexion of which with λευκός=λευκός, λύκη, lux, λυκάβας, and the root λεξ, "to see," is well known. Thus the old difficulty about Apollo's epithet λúxaos vanishes at once.

270 With respect to the identity of o- and v- in this reference, we will take the liberty of repeating here what we have incidentally stated on a former occasion, when we endeavoured to show that the ideas of progressive time and recurrence are connected with our conceptions of the regular flowing of water. As the cycles of hours and seasons are always recommencing, it is plain that our first notions of progression in time must be nearly allied to, if not identical with, those of recurrence; and there is no object presented to the senses which is more likely to suggest the idea of the course of time, than the noiseless, but unceasing flow of the running stream. Not to enter upon any metaphysical discussion of this point, etymology renders it sufficiently plain, that the words which imply "flowing," "progression," and "recurring," are connected with the same elemental root.

The particle, which, in the Latin language, expresses return, reversion, and recurrence, is that which forms the first syllable of these very words-namely, the prefix re. In the Greek language, the functions of this particle are performed by the preposition a-vá, while the particle and affix -a, -o denotes, as we have seen above, motion in a direction previously indicated. Now the idea of motion. in a direct line is the idea of perpetual recurrence, for the line is a series of points with evanescent intervals; and this again is the idea of progressive time. For our purpose, therefore, it only remains to

* Lobeck too has subsequently expressed his dissent from this remark of Niebuhr's (Paralipom. p. 128, note 16).

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show that in their employment as verbal roots, 2-, Q-, v- are indifferently used to express these connected ideas.

It will not be denied that while νέομαι, νίσσομαι, νόστος, &c. express return and recurrence, and while vέos implies change, which is included in the idea of motion (above, § 55), the words vέw, vavs, vãμa, &c. convey the meaning of "being in the water, being borne along the stream," &c. Now a very similar conception is expressed by the cognate roots ῥέω, ῥεῦμα, π-λέω, πολύ-νω, λούω; rapio, p-luo, f-luo, lavo, &c.; compare 'Axe-λgos with aqua lavans, fluens. We should naturally expect to find these roots in the Indo-Germanic term for a year" a period which includes all the changes of the seasons, which is always progressive, yet always recommencing; always changing, but always resuming its identity. Now in the ancient Etruscan, which we believe to have been pure Pelasgian in its calendar, we find the word ri-l signifying "a year." As the termination corresponds to the patronymic l- in servi-lius, fi-lius, which in Greek is de- or d-, as in 'Atoɛí-dns, vi-diov, we may compare ri-l with dɛioov, which denotes the motion of water. Similarly, the Latin annus, more anciently ânus, must denote at once "the ever-flowing" (aέ-vaos), and "the ever-returning" (ael veóuɛvos). Accordingly, ânus=jânus stands on the same footing as â-ril, who seems to have been the God of the Tuscan year.

It will be admitted, we trust, that the result of this investigation is to identify the element -- with the third pronominal root v-. And if any one seeks to undervalue the importance of these inquiries, he may be told that these combinations have enabled us to supply the only link wanted to complete the chain of evidence, which proves the wonderful and systematic perfection of the formative contrivances of inflected language.

CHAPTER IV.

NOUNS USED AS PREPOSITIONS.

271 (1) "Evena. Its true meaning suggested by its apparently pleonastic use. 272 Connexion of Evenα==¿v Ena and Enati. 273 Words containing exa-; their cognate meanings. 274 Ideas of separation and will meet in that of unity 275 Analysis of E-xa. 276 Proper names which include these syllables. 277 Compounds of Eveza and a pronoun. Elvexa should be written for ovveza, when the latter appears as a preposition. 278 (2) Xάow. Distinctive use of zágiv and Eveza. 279 Meaning of лçòç záọi. 280 Examination of the class of words to which χάρις belongs. Χώρος, χορός, and χώρα. 281 Χέρσος, χοιράς, χείρ, &c. 282 Χάροψ, χάρυβδις, and χάρων. 283 Χάρων and Γηρύων. 284 Military applications of the words zagun, zoria, &c. 285 The same idea conveyed by ons, oα, &c. 286 A similar reference discovered in the primitive meaning of zaoag. 287 Associations by contrast in the acceptations of the root zao. 288 More doubtful affinities of yagıs. 289 (3) Aixry. Its prepositional use. 290 Meaning of dizŋ. 291 Connected applications of yagis and din. "The Graces" and "fair dealing." 292 This is supported by the etymology of δίκη.

271

BY

Y the side of the regular prepositions, which, as we have seen, are reducible to the simplest pronominal elements, the fixed inflexions or adverbial forms of many nouns and pronouns are used syntactically as prepositions, that is, they are employed in connexion with some case, usually the genitive, or, in common language, they govern that case. Thus we have ayy and lyrús, tyyú, "near," one evidently the dative of y ἄγχι the shortened form of άyxán, the other exhibiting v prefixed to the dative of a word synonymous with yún. The idea of separation is expressed by ἄτερ= ἄντερ, by χωρίς, the fragmentary dative of χώρα, and by τηλε, τηλού, τηλόθι, and τηλόθεν, different cases of a word denoting growth and extension (below, § 344). Among the cases of nouns, which contribute in this way to the definite syntax of the Greek language, there are three words which deserve special notice for etymological considerations. These words are (1) Evena or enati, (2) xáow, and (3) díxyv. As these quasi-prepositions have a sort of connexion with one another, and as the first two belong, each of them, to an extensive family of words which has not been sufficiently explained, shall devote a separate chapter to their consideration.

of,"

we

(1) It is generally laid down that evexa signifies "on account "for the sake of;" but it is proper to state that the genitive

case.

with which evexa is generally found, may stand alone with the same signification, as when Thucydides says (1. 4) that Minos cleared the Agean sea of pirates as far as he could, τοῦ τὰς προσόδους μᾶλλον ἰέναι αὐτῷ, and also that the genitive case may be accompanied by some additional preposition conveying a similar meaning, or by χάριν : as will appear from the following passages; Sophocles, Philoctet. 554; ἃ τοῖσιν Αργείοισιν ἀμφὶ σοῦ νεκα βουλεύματ ̓ ἐστί.

Thucydides, VIII. 92: καὶ ὁ μὲν Θηραμένης ἐλθὼν ἐς τὸν Πειραιᾶ... ὅσον καὶ ἀπὸ βοῆς ἕνεκα ὠργίζετο τοῖς ὁπλίταις· ὁ δὲ Αρίσταρχος καὶ οἱ ἐναντίοι τῷ πλήθει (read τῷ ἀλήθει) ἐχαλέπαινον. Xenophon, Hellenic. u. 4, § 31: πέμπων δὲ πρέσβεις ὁ Παυσανίας πρὸς τοὺς ἐν Πειραιεῖ ἐκέλευεν ἀπιέναι ἐπὶ τὰ ἑαυτῶν· ἐπεὶ δ ̓ οὐκ ἐπείθοντο, προσέβαλλεν ὅσον ἀπὸ βοῆς ἕνεκεν, ὅπως μὴ δῆλος εἴη εὐμενὴς αὐ τοῖς ὤν. Lysias de Evandri probatione, p.176: ὁ θεὶς τὸν περὶ τῶν δοκιμασιῶν νόμον [οὐχ ἥκιστα] περὶ τῶν ἐν ὀλιγαρχίᾳ ἀρξάντων ἕνεκεν ἔθηκεν. Plato, Politicus, p.302Β: οὐ μὴν ἀλλ ̓ εἴς γε τὸ ὅλον ἴσως ἅπανθ ̓ ἕνεκα τοῦ τοιούτου πάντες δρῶμεν χάριν. Legg. III. p. 701 v: ἀλλ' ἐπανερωτᾷν τὸ νῦν δὴ λεχθέν, τὸ τίνος δὴ χάριν ἕνεκα ταῦτα ἐλέχθη. In Aristophanes, Thesmoph. 372,

ἢ Μήδους ἐπάγουσι τῆς

χώρας ούνεκ [leg. εἵνεκ ] ἐπὶ βλάβῃ,

it is probable that the last three words are a mere repetition of those in v. 367 : κερδῶν οὕνεκ' [εἵνεκ' ] ἐπὶ βλάβῃ. We think, however, that it is unnecessary to place them between brackets, as Dindorf has done. In the other passages it is easy to show that evexa is neither superfluous nor insignificant. The phrase ὅσον ἀπὸ βοῆς ἕνεκα, used by Thucydides and Xenophon, is probably a military expression: for a Greek battle generally began with a shout, and if the parties did not go farther than that, it was of course only a sham-fight. And thus Xenophon says that Pausanias attacked the Peiræus merely so far as shouting went; he made a false attack: and Thucydides states that whereas Aristarchus and the young oligarchs who accompanied him were sincerely indignant (we read either τῷ ἀλήθει or τῷ πλήθει τῷ ἀλήθει, the latter having been merged in the former from its similarity of appearance), Theramenes only affected to condemn the conduct of the soldiers,ὅσον ἀπὸ βοῆς ἕνεκα ὠργίζετο, he showed his anger only so far as making an outcry went. In these two passages,

then, ἕνεκα clearly means "only.” In all the other instances of alleged pleonasm the signification obviously is " especially," "in particular." Indeed, it is probable that, in the passage of Lysias, we ought to bracket, not περί, as Bekker has done, but οὐχ ἥκιστα, which seems to be a gloss upon evenev. The etymological analysis, which we

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