Assuming & = 1*3,* we obtain,

15899 (159) feet per second, as the maximum ocity attained by such a stone in falling to the earth. This locity does not exceed one-tenth of the initial velocity of rifle bullet. And, as the penetrating power of a given pro. tile is proportional to the square of its velocity, its power of netrating the ice would only be one-hundredth part as aut as that of a projectile of similar mass and dimensions oving at the rate of a rifle bullet. Hence we need not be rprised that the ice was not penetrated more than three or four ches.

If the same mass of stone (two pounds) were spherical in form stead of cubical, its diameter would be 3.2803 inches = 0.27336 et, and = 0·058689 square feet. In this case, we may ssume k = 0.7+ Hence, by the formula (a), we obtain,

v = 197'05 feet per second: so that in this case likeise its velocity would be quite low, and its penetrating ower very insignificant.

Of course, in the case of large meteoric stones the value of v would be much greater. JOHN LE CONTE

ASTRONOMY

The Solar Eclipse of 1868 +

ADEN was chosen as the observing-station because from the general nature of its climate it was thought that a satsfac ory view of the phenomena that took place during the eclipse might fairly be expected, and also because, as it was far removed from the stations of the French and English expeditions, any observations taken there would prove of considerable importance. The observers were Prof. Edmund Weiss (the leader) Prof. Oppolzer, and J. Rziha, already known for his observations of the eclipse of 1867.

On the morning of the eclipse (Aug. 17) the state of the atmosphere proved unfortunately anything but favourable for astronomical investigation, owing to the presence of a great amount of cloudiness. According to Oppolzer the beginning of the totality was 18h 29m 30s 0 (Aden mean time), the end 18h 33 24 6.

A few moments before the total disappearance of the sun, Weiss saw on it a beautiful carmine red border or streak, in the middle of which arose a similarly-coloured complicated prominence (No. 1) which lasted for a few seconds. Half a minute later (18h 30m2) a second prominence (No. 2) appeared, long, thin, and in shape resembling a slightly bent finger; nearly two minutes later (18h 31m 585) he noticed a third smaller, hillshaped, or conical prominence (No. 3). Just at the end of the totality another beautiful red border appeared, on the outer edge of which was a gleam of deep blue, most intense at the point of junction with the red, and rapidly fading away on the outside into the background.

Some English officers stationed a short way off also noticed the first two prominences (which they say were visible to the naked eye) and the red border at the end of the totality, but they failed to see prominence No. 3, perhaps for want of suffi cien ly powerful or properly adapted instruments.

Oppolzer's observations coincided with those of Weiss, except that he failed to see prominence No. 3 on account of the interference of passing clouds, though he suspected its presence from a certain ied appearance at the spot indicated by Weiss. Satisfactory observations of the corona were rendered impossible by the state of the atmosphere.

*For cubes moving in water the experiments of Du Buat and Duchemin give k = 1 28.

For spheres moving in air the experiments of Robins and Hutton give for velocities:

?= 3'28, 16'4, 82, 328 feet per second,

k = 0'59, 063, 0'67, 0'71.

Astronomische Nachrichten, No. 1836-1837: "Account of the observations of the Austrian Expedition sent to Aden to watch the total solar eclipse of 1868."

Rziha's part was confined to the spectrum, and his account is that simultaneously with the disappearance of the last sunbeam. Fraunhofer's lines entirely vanished, the spectrum became continuous and remained so to the end of the totality. All his efforts to detect any reversal of the lines proved ineffectual. Just before the reappearance of the sun, thin clouds intervened and hid the greater part of the corona, so that the principal sources of light were the red border and the prominences. At this moment the more refrangible rays from the green disappeared gradually, and only the red end of the spectrum remained, consisting of deep red, carmine, orange, feeble yellow, and the faintest possible tinge of green, at the same time this remaining part became discontinuous owing to the appearance of dark lines in it, which did not, however, coincide with any of the principal lines of the ordinary spectrum. The disappearance of the dark lines, Rziha seems to think, would connect the corona with a solar atmosphere; and he suggests that the lines or streaks which appeared afterwards were due to absorption by the watervapour of our own atmosphere,

PHYSICS

On a Quantitative Method of Testing a "Telegraph Earth," by W. E. Ayrton*

THE method used up to the present time for testing a tele graph earth has been qualitative only. As, however, the electrical condition of every "earth" is of great practical im portance, it is necessary that some accurate quantitative method should be devised, in order that every telegraph office may ascertain whether the resistance of their earth is higher or lower than the maximum resistance allowed. The principal difficulty met with is that, if the resistance between two earths be measured successively with positive and negative currents, the same result is not obtained. Consequently the ordinary law for a Wheatstone's Bridge, or Differential Galvanometer, would not hold true. This difficulty, however, has been overcome in this paper, and formulæ are developed suitable for a Wheatstone's Bridge, a Differential Galvanometer, or a Galvanometer of which the law of the deflections is known.

The details of some experiments are also given, and a particular instance is mentioned in which a much better "earth was obtained by burying the plate in the upper stratum of soil than by burying it much deeper, on account of a bed of sandstone that existed at about fifteen feet below the surface.

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

THE American Naturalist for September commences with an article by Mr. W. J. Hays, entitled "Notes on the range of some of the Animals in America at the time of the arrival of the white men." The moose, now almost entirely driven out of the United States, was, at the time of the first European settlement, found as far south as New York city; the range of the carriboo was not more extensive then than it is now, although fossil re mains have been found as far south as the Ohio; the musk-ox is not mentioned by the early travellers; but the common deer (Cervus virginianus and C. campestris) was everywhere repre sented as existing in incredible numbers. The Wapiti deer was found all along the coast from Can da to the Gulf of Mexico; the bison (improperly called the buffalo by the early settlers), also ranged along the coast from the valley of the Connecticut to Florida, and roamed over the entire country now known as the United States, and extending as far north as the sixtieth parallel in British America. Mr. Hays reckons that at the present time not fewer than half-a-million bisons are annually destroyed by the hand of man. The red fox existed in America before the advent of the white man, in addition to the gray species, notwithstanding assertions to the contrary; wolves were everywhere abundant, as also was the beaver; the jaguar, not now found east of Texas. occurred in the mountains of North Carolina as recently as 1737; the dog was found in all parts of the country; and, from the descriptions, must have been of the same species as those now found with the Indians of the plain. The only other original article in the number is "On the Food and Habits of some of our Marine Fishes" by Prof. A. E. Verrill.

THE most important paper in the Journal of Botany for September is an article by Mr J. G. Baker "On the Dispersion of Montane Plants over the Hills of the North of England." Mr.

* From the Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.

ΑΝ

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 21, 1871

THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION

N excellent article in the New York Journal of Commerce makes us acquainted with several points in the organisation of the Smithsonian Institution-that most cosmopolitan of our existing scientific organisations to which we are anxious to draw attention It is

too much to hope for a similar institution in this country, but it is, nevertheless, interesting to watch the development of the American one under the wise direction of Prof. Henry.

Many years ago the Institution established what is known as the "Smithsonian system of exchanges," whereby, in exchange for those of America, the scientific pub. lications of societies and individuals throughout the civilised world are placed without cost within easy access of the student of science in this country.

This system, promising at its inauguration all that could be expected, rapidly expanded, and during the past few years has yielded an abundance of fruit in the way of a knowledge of the progress of science in every part of the world, far exceeding the anticipation of its must sanguine supporters. Indeed, so eminently beneficial, not only to the scientific, but to the general interests of the country, has the system proved, that Congress a few years since directed the establishment, on a similar plan, of an international exchange of official publications, to be placed under the especial charge of the Institution, and voted, as a basis of operations, for distribution, fifty complete sets of the documents of the Fortieth Congress. These will shortly be ready for transmission by the Institution, in the name of the United States, to such foreign Powers as have either requested to be included in the list of exchange, or in some other way announced their approval of the plan, and are, therefore, known to be prepared to return similar publications of their own Governments respectively. Thus, in time, will be added to the great Congressional liorary a fund of knowledge which can hardly fail to be of vast importance to this Government.

It is mainly through its system of exchanges that the Institution has accumulated, and will continue to increase, that vast storehouse of scientific truths denominated the "Smithsonian Library," which, numbering about 70,000 volumes (inclusive of pamphlets, &c.), contains, besides complete series of the Transactions of many of the older societies of England and France, which it would now be difficult, if not impossible, to replace, hundreds of works which, like those of the societies in question, can be obtained in no other way than by exchange. On account, however, of the limited space provided for its proper accommodation in the Smithsonian building, but chiefly owing to danger from fire, the Institution a few years ago transferred its library to the Capitol, where, in company with the library of Congress, it still continues to occupy fire-proof roomy quarters. With regard to the library, the secretary of the Institution, in his last printed report, remarks: "The transfer of the Smithsonian Library still continues to be approved by all who have attentively considered the advantages it affords the Institution, the

VOL. IV.

Government, and the public;". . . that while, "by its. transfer the Smithson fund has been relieved of a serious burden in the cost of binding and cataloguing the books ... it has enriched the library of Congress with a class of valuable works which could scarcely be procured by purchase, and has facilitated the use of the books by collecting them in one locality, under the same system, readily accessible to the public." Again, Prof. Henry remarks: "The library of Congress, or, as we think it should now be denominated, the 'National Library,' contains about 180,000 volumes" (1868). . . . This library is, emphatically, a library of progress, for while it continues to increase by purchase in its own series of standard works at all times, its additions through the contributions of the Institution include the Transactions of the principal learned societies of the world, or the works which mark more definitely than any other publications the actual advance of the age in higher civilisation;" adding, in order to counteract the impression that the Institution, since the transfer of its library, no longer desires to receive books, "that no change in this respect has taken place in the policy of the Institution." It is gratifying to learn that this is the case; and to know that while Congress uses the books, it carefully cares for them.

On account of the large expense attending the transmission of a few packages when the Institution first put in operation its now great system of exchange, but owing much more to the greater expense that it was anticipated would have to be met in connection with return transmissions for American addresses; and, moreover, since the total charges for transportation both to and from the United States would have to be defrayed almost entirely by the Institution, while the results of its efforts would be placed at the free command of all, both organised bodies and individuals; it was soon found necessary to attempt to secure reduced rates for its ocean freight. In addition, it was absolutely requisite that foreign ports should be opened to the entry free of duty of the packages of a scientific character bearing the Smithsonian label; and to the accomplishment of both these ends the eminent head of the Institution bent every energy. Upon a proper presentation of the subject, the leading steamship lines plying between the United States and foreign countries, besides several companies sailing in waters exclusively foreign (with merely representative houses in this country), one after another became impressed with the importance of scientific intercommunication between the Old and the New World, as developed under the Smithsonian system, until now all, with great liberality, grant free freights to books and specimens interchanged under the auspices of the Institution.

With the ports of the rest of the world open to the free entry of scientific truth, the continuance on the part of Italy, year after year, to withhold from her people this right, was long deemed sufficient cause for the suspension, by the Institution, of inter-communication in the line of transmission of books and specimens. But not till three years ago did such suspension take place, and then solely because of the great expense to the Institution, on account of taxes levied at Italian ports on parcels whose contents, while purely of a scientific character, were intended as presents to that people. The suspension,

Y

however, was but for a brief period. A knowledge of the cordial welcome which American contributions to science had always met with at the hands of the principal scientists and learned bodies of Italy, was sufficient to convince the Institution that a cessation of intercourse would last but a short time, while it would terminate beneficially to both parties. The result was as predicted. Shortly after the stoppage of transmission, there was manifested by the scientific portion of the Italian people a strong desire that it should be resumed. Negotiations were soon begun, and after two years Italy acceded free entry to parcels bearing the familiar endorsement of the Institution. The decree guaranteeing this right may properly be said to mark an epoch in the history of the Smithsonian Institution, as well as in that of the advance of scientific education. The Institution has a printed catalogue of foreign correspondents, numbering nearly 1,600 learned bodies, and, in addition, an extended manuscript list of individuals with whom it is in correspondence abroad, which embraces the names of the most eminent savans of the Old World. This shows that outside the United States, the policy of the Institution is everywhere highly endorsed; while fresh evidence of the fact is continually being received from new organisations, having for their object the advancement of science, in the form of applications for enrolment in the Smithsonian list of correspondents.

With no desire for a knowledge of the terms of the bequest, and satisfied as to the correctness of their own opinion that Smithson's gift was solely for the people of the United States, many Americans do not approve of extending the benefits of the said gift beyond the narrow limits of the land in which they themselves reside. In so enlightened an age, and with Smithson's will easily accessible, the error of such an opinion is unpardonable.

The mistake made by Congress, however, shortly after the bequest was accepted, is in a measure to be excused. The trust was of a novel character, while the instrument conveying it to the care of the

United States made known but briefly the design of the giver. The life and character of the testator ought to have been closely investigated in order to arrive at a proper appreciaion of the true spirit of the terms upon which the money was given and accepted. It would appear that without an investigation of this kind, or certainly without a knowledge of Smithson's intention, Congress directed the management of the interest from the fund, for a few years immediately subsequent to its acceptance by the United States Government, in such manner as to divert the bequest for a long time almost entirely from its legitimate purpose. Several hundred thousand dollars yielded by a fund left for the "increase and diffusion of knowledge among men," was sunk in "brick and mortar." Had the amount expended in the erection, not to speak of the large sums paid out for the maintenance and repair, of the stupendous structure known as the Smithsonian building, been added to the principal of the original fund, the Institution would have been enabled to realise to a much fuller extent than has been done the anticipations of the generous foreigner whose name it perpetuates. While many were convinced of the fact at the time the fund was accepted, it is now universally admitted that for the "increase and diffusion

of knowledge," brains and the printing press are the essential requisites, and that for the accommodation of these a building of moderate size and of small cost is all that is needed. The Smithsonian Institution, however, the especial object of which is that just set forth, continues to occupy a structure which in point of dimensions is vastly more extensive than is needed for its operations. The cost of maintaining such an edifice is very great, while, owing to its peculiar style of architecture, contingent repairs are frequent as well as expensive. It is to be hoped that the building will, before long, become the property of the Government, and the purchase money be added to the present Smithson fund. This vast edifice is suitably adapted to the exhibition of a Museum on a scale worthy the capital of the nation. The nucleus of such an establishment is already cared for by the Institu tion, but, although belonging to, is not maintained entirely at the expense of, the Government. The purchase in question of this building would be an acknowledgment of the intention of the United States to correct, as far as possible, the errors committed when the trust was accepted, and would prove an earnest to the people of other lands (for whom, equally with ourselves, the gift is designed) that the trustees of the munificent liberality of Smithson intended hereafter to carry out his wishes according to the letter and spirit of his will.

The efforts of the distinguished head of the Institution so to conduct the establishment as that the greatest good may eventually result to the greatest number, are appre ciated far and wide, while his untiring devotion to the cause of education has rendered his name familiar to the most distant portions of mankind.

PHYSIOLOGICAL RESEARCHES AT GRATZ
Untersuchungen aus dem Institut für Physiologie und
Histologie in Gratz. Herausgegeben von Alexander
Rollet. Zweites Heft. (Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann,
1871. London: Williams and Norgate.)
THIS record of Histological and Physiological research
Styria contains a series of interesting and im-
portant papers.

The first of these is one by the editor on the classifica tion of tissues. Nearly every author who has written on Histology generally has put forth some classification of other. Amongst these, that of Dr. Beale in Todd and Bowman's "Physiological Anatomy and Physiology" Ed 1866, p. 70) is cited as one of the worst and most illogical It is a difficult question to determine what are and what are not elementary units of histological structures. Dr.

Rollet founds his classification, as far as

possible, on the

data afforded by the history of the development of the tissues.

Thus, endothelial structures are classed with connective tissue, and separated entirely from epithelial as being developed in the pleuroperitoneal cavity of the embryo. The classification arrived at is as follows: 1. Sencocytes.

2. Red blood corpuscles.

3. Elementary parts of connective tissue. 4. Elementary parts of fatty tissue. 5. Elementary parts of muscular tissue. 6. Elementary parts of nerve tissue. 7. Elementary parts of epithelial tissue.

For

This classification seems to be an excellent one. its further development we must refer to the paper itself. A paper on the septic glands of the stomach by Dr. Rollet follows the former, and is most exhaustive in character, and the fact that the methods by which the results have been arrived at are most carefully described is especially to be commended. A new carmine solution is recommended which we have tried with excellent results. It has the advantage of being neutral, and of allowing of the addition of a certain amount of acid without suffering precipitation. It is prepared by boiling for five hours 35 grains of carmine with 270 cc. of dilute sulphuric acid (one volume of concentrated acid to fifteen volumes water), the volume being kept constant by the addition from time to time of water. The resulting solution is filtered and diluted with four times its volume of water. The sulphuric acid is then neutralised with carbonate of barium, and the solution quickly filtered. As soon as the filtrate has run off, a fresh quantity of water is poured on the precipitate, and comes through strongly coloured. Four or five filtrates may thus be obtained. The first two do not keep well, the third, fourth, and fifth do. From these solutions may be obtained what is called by Dr. Rollet carmine-red, which is soluble in distilled water.

It is too much the fashion amongst English histologists to aim at staining the nuclei only of the cells of tissues, whereas what is far more valuable is a clear definition of the boundaries of the cell itself. This result is in most cases only to be obtained by using a perfectly neutral solution of carmine such as the one just described. Dr. Rollet has found it yield very good results in cases where carminate of ammonium had failed. It would probably be found very good for silver preparations.

In a short notice it is impossible to do justice to such a paper as this. Dr. Rollet describes the glands of the rabbit, cat, dog, ox, sheep, pig, hedgehog, and other animals. He has also compared the appearance presented by the glands of the hybernating and active bat. The journal contains also an account of a Commutator for Batteries in Physiological Laboratories," invented by Dr. Rollet; a paper on the "Development of Spermatozoa," by Dr. Victor V. Ebor, of great importance; another, on the "Glands of the Larynx and Trachea," by Dr. Mathias Boldyrew, who describes glands in all respects resembling pyers glands, as occurring occasionally in the larynx of the dog; and "Remarks on the effects of the administration of small quantities of curare in successive injections," by Julius Glase. The results are very remarkable. The animal becomes at each injection more and more sensitive to the poison, and finally reaches a state in which an extremely small quantity produces immediate convulsions and even death. Moreover, the injections may be intermitted for days and yet the animal remain as sensitive as before. The author believes that the system becomes adapted to the poison in such a way as to absorb it more rapidly, or that an actual change in some of the nervous centres occurs. Of course we cannot consider this a case of so-called cumulative poisoning, since the animal remains apparently perfectly healthy between the doses. The last paper is one on the "Ciliated Epithelium of the Uterine Glands." The author, Dr. Gustav Sott, has observed cilia in motion in the uterus of the cow, sheep, pig, rabbit, and moose. H. N. M.

OUR BOOK SHELF

A History of British Birds. By the late William Yarrell, V.P.L.S., F.Z.S. Fourth Edition, revised by Alfred Newton, M.A., F.Z.S. Parts 1 and 2. (London: Van Voorst, 1871.)

"YARRELL'S British Birds" is without doubt one of the best known and most widely appreciated books on Natural History ever published in this country, and has probably done more than any other work to excite and augment an interest in one of the most attractive branches of zoology. At the same time, "Yarrell's Birds" is neither cheap nor popular in the ordinary sense of these terms, and the fact of three large editions of it having been sold, and a fourth being now called for, is a sterling proof of its extraordinary merits. The third edition of the work was issued in 1856, a few months before the author's death. For the editorship of the present (fourth) edition the publisher has secured the services of Prof. Newton of Cambridge, than whom no one is better qualified for the undertaking. Moreover, what is of still greater consequence, it may be added that, so far as we can judge from the parts of the work that have as yet reached us, Prof. Newton has set about the task entrusted to him in a very thorough way. As has been observed in the prospectus of the new edition, the literature of the subject has been nearly doubled within these last thirty years-that is, since the date of the publication of Mr. Yarrell's original work, while even since the issue of the last edition an extraordinary augmentation has been made of our knowledge of British Birds. "Very many of the species respecting which little was actually known in 1856 have been traced by competent observers to their breeding-quarters, and their habits ascertained, and in some instances minutely recorded." Mr. Yarrell's later editions having been little more than reprints of the original, with the intercalation of certain species recorded from time to time in the "Zoologist" and similar periodicals as "new British birds," it follows that a good deal of alteration and addition was necessary to bring the work up to the present standard of ornithological knowledge. This the new editor has apparently determined to effect, in spite of the vast amount of labour involved in so doing, which, on the whole, will fall little short of that of preparing an entirely new work on the subject. Such articles as those on the Griffon and Egyptian Vultures and the Greenland and Iceland Falcons in the first number require to be entirely rewritten, while material additions have to be made to the history of even the commonest species, particularly as regards their geographical range and their representation by allied forms.

The woodcuts of the present edition are mostly the same as those prepared for the original work.

It is certainly a decisive proof of the present popularity of ornithology, so far at any rate as regards the knowledge of our native species, that while Mr. Gould's "Birds of Great Britain" is still unfinished, and Messrs. Sharpe and Dresser have lately begun an entirely new work occupying nearly the same ground, a fourth edition of Mr. Yarrell's "History of British Birds" should be commenced with every prospect of permanent success. P. L. S.

We have lately received the last published Report on the progress of Entomology prepared in connection with the Archiv für Naturgeschichte. In the space of 225 pages it includes a review of all the works and papers published in 1867-68 on the subject of Entomology, taking that word in what may be called its Linnean sense, namely, as embracing the study of Insects, Arachnida, Myriopoda, and Crustacea. Of these reports, commenced by Erichson, continued by Schaum, and after his illness by Gerstäcker, it is impossible to over-estimate the value, for although the information contained in them upon the species and sys