the links between the lines are placed the connecting words or phrases. Compound sentences can be divided at once into the simple or complex sentences that compose them. These simple or complex sentences can then be treated in the ways described above. EXERCISE 22 Show, by the method explained on pages 66-68, the structure of the following sentences: "The boy, who was staggering under the weight of his melodious instrument, had been expecting this command, and without waiting for the midshipman to communicate the order, he commenced that short rub-a-dub air, that will at any time rouse a thousand men from the deepest sleep, and cause them to fly to their means of offence with a common soul. The crew of the Ariel had been collected in groups studying the appearance of the enemy, cracking their jokes, and waiting only for this usual order to repair to the guns; and at the first tap of the drum, they spread with steadiness to the different parts of the little vessel, where their various duties called them. The cannon were surrounded by small parties of vigorous and athletic young men; the few marines were drawn up in array with muskets; the officers appeared in their boarding-caps, with pistols stuck in their belts, and naked sabres in their hands.” COOPER: The Pilot. 53. Fundamental Errors in the Construction of Sentences. Now that the pupil, by practice in analysis, has refreshed his knowledge of the relation of part to part in simple, complex, and compound sen tences, he cannot fail to understand the nature of certain fundamental errors. These errors are of four sorts (1) errors in the construction of principal clauses; (2) errors in the construction of subordinate clauses; (3) errors in the relation of participial phrases to the words or phrases they modify; (4) errors in the relation of principal clauses to each other in compound sentences. (1) A common error in the writing of the ignorant is the omission of (a) the principal verb, or of (b) the whole principal clause; e.g. (a) “Business training, in that it gives the editor an insight into the financial workings of a paper, with its possible income and its natural expenses." (b) "When, at the end of his journey, covered with dust and completely exhausted, the messenger stood at the foot of the low hills that separated the city from the sea." It is, however, wholly proper to omit the verb when (a) it can be readily supplied by the mind from the context, or when (b) the group of words is rather an exclamatory phrase than a principal clause; e.g. (a) "First [let us consider], the points on the other side." (b) "At last." "To be sure." "A shout, a wild rush, a struggle, and the fort was taken." (2) Writers not trained in the logical and grammatical analysis of sentences frequently destroy the sense of subordinate clauses by omitting essential words or confusing different constructions; e.g. (a) "It is proposed by General Garcia when each. soldier leaves the service he shall obtain a certi fied statement of the amount of money due him." (b) "Although having been open less than a week, the gymnasium is already an established factor in the student's life." In (a) a that before when is essential to the sense and the grammatical structure. In (b) the writer confounds having been open and although it has been open. (3) Participial phrases sometimes are made, grammatically, the modifiers of nouns or other words to which they do not logically relate; e.g. "Running as fast as possible, the burning building was at last reached." Here, grammatically, the building appears to be the thing that was running. The sentence should read, “Running as fast as possible, they at last reached the burning building." Compare § 31 (12). (4) A fundamental error, likewise, is that which we may call the " comma sentence." When two or more principal clauses occur in the same sentence, they must, as a rule, be connected by conjunctions or separated by semicolons or colons. They should not be separated by commas. For example: [Correct.] "He was allowed to have no counsel in his defence, and his request to see Bonaparte was again refused." [Correct.] "He was allowed to have no counsel in his defence; his request to see Bonaparte was again refused." [Correct.] "He was allowed to have no counsel in his defence: even his request to see his brother, who was a lawyer, was sternly refused."1 1 For the difference in effect between a semicolon and a colon, see §§ 56 and 57. [Incorrect.] "He was allowed to have no counsel in his defence, even his request to see his brother, who was a lawyer, was sternly refused." The practice of separating by commas principal clauses in a compound sentence is allowable, however, in a series of comparatively simple clauses similar in construction; e.g. "I came, I saw, I conquered." "The birds sang sweetly, the river rippled by, the clouds sailed on." Nothing, except habitual bad spelling, can give a stronger impression of illiteracy than the use of the comma in separating clauses which either should be made independent sentences, or, if they can be considered as belonging to the same sentence, should be separated by semicolons. The fault is particularly common among students who have not profited by their instruction in grammar. EXERCISE 23 On the basis of what is stated in the preceding section, correct orally the mistakes in the following sentences: 1. Although having been open for less than one week, the gymnasium is an established factor in the student's life. 2. The cause is obvious, recently some liquor-sellers were arrested and the chief of the tribe wanted to testify against them. 3. The climate of Porto Rico is comparatively good, better, indeed, than that of Cuba, consequently it will become a favorite resort during the winter for American tourists. 4. It is true that last year's Freshmen had to do various foolish things and a few drank milk besides, but they always put up a good fight, in fact they drank milk because they were held down and the fluid poured in. 5. We are glad to note the liberal policy the authorities have adopted in laying down a set of rules for the use of the gymnasium, yet there is one regulation which should certainly be put into force, this is requiring visitors to keep off the floor. 6. But there is really no more reason for selecting that date than many others, take the twelfth of August when the American flag was raised over Honolulu, or further back to when Alaska was purchased, or further still to the date of the acquiring of Texas. 7. The season has been a disgrace both to the president of the League and to the men who took part in the games, hardly a day has passed without rowdyism. 8. From this time on he had a series of conflicts with the French. Until now, old and a captive, he has come to the end of his active career. 9. Thus the story ends, as many do, "they were married and lived happy ever after." 10. The Maules were a family of woodchoppers, the father very often turned an honest penny by his clever use of the hammer and the saw. II. This University is cramped for room. Since, in the first place, it has not got room enough for a large dormitory, which is one of the elements of a college life. 12. Imagining a weak, effeminate, simple man, a good idea of Price is obtained. 13. A thorough coward, and, on the whole, a fellow to be pitied. 14. Having always felt a deep interest in astronomical inquiries, and without knowledge of the results of Newton and Laplace, this question was investigated by myself and by my staff. 15. The advantages of this compulsory physical course are, I might say, almost self-evident, while they were down at 49th Street, they had no gymnasium, and the physical education was entirely neglected. 16. The fellows as a result took but little exercise, in fact most of |