by the middle of his high school course, some systematic instruction in these matters through the study of a text-book under the direction of his teacher. We must now, before going further, summarize the results of this almost indispensable preliminary instruction. We shall follow closely the rhetorical system explained in the author's First High School Course in this subject; but there is so great a uniformity in the minds of teachers and writers as to the principles involved, that the following summary will indicate, it is hoped, the essential elements in any good textbook on formal rhetoric.

It is obvious that a writer's main purposes in composition are (1) that what he writes should be understood by the reader; (2) that what he writes should impress the reader forcibly; and (3) that what he writes should impress the reader favorably, i.e. impress him by the neatness and accuracy and skill with which the author has accomplished his task. The three great qualities of good composition may, therefore, be said to be clearness, force, and elegance.

We shall be aided in securing these qualities of style if we regard each piece of writing as a mechanism composed of several parts. Let us call a piece of writing that is complete in itself a whole composition. This usually consists of a group of paragraphs. Each paragraph is, moreover, a group of sentences, and each sentence is a group of words. We must, then, secure the qualities at which we aim either

(1) by the choice of words, or (2) by the grouping of words in sentences, or (3) by the grouping of sentences in paragraphs, or (4) by the grouping of paragraphs in a whole composition.1

The theory of the word is simple. Though the choice of words may show the utmost art, the elementary principles controlling choice are easily understood. They are (1) that a word must be in good English use (i.e. not a barbarism), under penalty of offending the reader's taste or being unintelligible to him; (2) that it must be used in the sense usually ascribed to it, under penalty of producing the same result; (3) that it must be the word best fitted, by its length, its derivation, and its greater or less definiteness of meaning, to play its part in the expression of a given idea, awakening not unpleasant or incongruous associations, but those most in harmony with the object in view.

Turning now to laws governing groups of words, the student should remember (1) that the grammatical structure of a sentence should stand out clearly, and (2) that a sentence may by its length and form

whether periodic, loose, or balanced — be more or less effective under given circumstances. He should further bear in mind three principles that govern not only the grouping of words in a sentence, but the grouping of sentences in a paragraph, and the group

1 The whole composition may in some cases, of course, be a single paragraph, complete in itself; the paragraph may, in rare instances, consist of a single sentence; and it is within the bounds of possibility that the sentence should consist of a single word.

ing of paragraphs in a whole composition. These are unity, emphasis, and coherence. Unity demands that words be so arranged as to express one idea in a sentence, and one alone; emphasis, that they be so arranged as to give prominence to the more important parts of the idea; coherence, that they be so arranged that their mutual relations can be easily and clearly understood. Similarly, in a paragraph, the sentence grouping (and, in a whole. composition, the paragraph grouping) must provide for a single idea, for the throwing of stress on the main point, and for the connection of thought.

Such is the simple theory which lies at the basis of good writing. It may be stated in different ways, but the essence remains much the same. Men may write well without having realized that they are following principles much like these, the knowledge or realization of which they had acquired by imitation or practice; but such cases are not common, and he is fortunate who can learn the principles of the art in youth and in the regular course of formal instruction, where his teacher and his classmates, by precept and criticism and discussion, can help him to appreciate and to master them. These principles, moreover, should be taken as suggestions of the truth, rather than as final statements of truth; they should not be accepted as rigid dogmas, capable of demonstration, but as the generalizations of writers of skill and experience, tested by the practice of many men of many kinds.

2. The Art of Composition. While mastering the elementary and preliminary theory of rhetoric just summarized, the pupil has doubtless had much practice in actual composition. This first course of study over, he should go on, usually in the work of his final year at school, with systematic instruction in what may be called the art of composition, as distinguished from his previous work in what is usually called formal rhetoric. It is this systematic study of the art of composition which we are now beginning. We shall see what kinds and forms of writing most frequently occur, and discuss the principles which govern success in each of these forms. We shall also study good models, analyze unsuccessful attempts, - to see wherein they fail, and ourselves make many trials. At the end of the year we should each be able to understand what are the main principles to be considered in all of the chief kinds of writing, and to produce something characteristic and interesting in each of them. We shall thus be fitted not only to give better expression to our more mature thoughts now and in years to come, but to enjoy more keenly the written expressions of the thoughts of others, and to value them more at their true worth.

3. Essays. The student should have no fear of essay-writing. From the work of the preceding year he has learned to choose his words with fair correctness, to frame a good sentence and a good paragraph, and to see in general the way in which longer compositions should be built up. He can therefore approach

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his present work without dread or nervousness. course, his brain has not reached maturity, and he cannot be expected to write with the ease and vigor of an older man. But the thoughts of youth are full of freshness, frankness, and charm, and, if he puts his mind on his work, there is nothing he will write which will not be heard or read with interest by his teacher and his classmates. All that he needs to do is (1) to write a neat, clear hand; (2) to keep up the habits of clear and definite statement which he acquired in his previous work; (3) to choose a subject in which he is interested, and (4) to write frankly what he thinks about it. Good subjects abound. There is the whole course of his school work and his out-ofschool experience from which to draw. What interests him will interest others, and he will be surprised to find that he himself can be interested in almost any subject which lies within the realm of his knowledge. He should always write with the thought of his hearers uppermost in his mind. How, he must keep asking himself, can I best make them understand. this, believe this, or see what I describe or narrate?

A word of advice, too, as to the preparation of an essay may be of service. Choose first the subject, and let the choice be made a day or two in advance, if possible. If several subjects occur to you, take the one which, after a short deliberation, seems best, but do not try first one and then another, thereby wasting time and strength. The subject chosen, keep it in mind at odd moments and think what in general