"ART. XXXVIII. In questions of a legal nature, and especially in the interpretation or application of international conventions, arbitration is recognized by the contracting powers as the most effective, and at the same time the most equitable, means of settling disputes which diplomacy has failed to settle."

The United States has been party to scores of arbitrations in the past century, the most notable being the one by which the "Alabama claims" controversy was settled with Great Britain. See Hague Tribunal; Peace Treaties.

Arbitration, German Attitude. "Arbitration treaties must be peculiarly detrimental to an aspiring people which has not yet reached its political and national zenith and is bent on expanding its power in order to play its part honorably in the civilized world. Every arbitration court must originate in a certain political status; it must regard this as legally constituted and must treat any alterations, however necessary, to which the whole of the contracting parties do not agree as an encroachment. In this way every progressive change is arrested and a legal position created which may easily conflict with the actual turn of affairs and may check the expansion of the young and vigorous state in favor of one which is sinking in the scale of civilization." (F. von Bernhardi, Germany and the Next War, 1912, p. 32.) Andrew D. White, late ambassador to Germany, says in his Autobiography (1905, II, p. 265), May 24, 1899: "Meeting Count Münster [chairman of the German delegation] who, after M. de Staal, is very generally considered the most important personage here, we discussed the subject of arbitration. To my great regret, I found him entirely opposed to it, or, at least, entirely opposed to any well-developed plan. He did not say that he would oppose a moderate plan for voluntary arbitration, but he insisted that arbitration must be injurious to Germany; that Germany is prepared for war as no other country is or can be; that she can mobilize her army in 10 days; and that neither France, Russia, nor any other power can do this. Arbitration, he said, would simply give rival powers time to put themselves in readiness, and would therefore be a great disadvantage to Germany." Mr. Henry White, reporting to the State Department in 1899 upon the Hague Convention, said: "I had learned from a high imperial official before I left Berlin that the Emperor considered arbitration as derogatory to his sovereignty, and I was also well aware, from his conversation, that he was by no means in love with the conference idea." Though this attitude was later modified in appearance, it was so in appearance only, with the result that Germany remains the one considerable power with which the United States has never succeeded in getting an arbitration treaty. See Disarmament, German Attitude; German Military Autocracy; Peace Overtures; War, German View.

Argentine Republic. Federal republic of southern South America. Its capital is Buenos Aires. The area is 1,153,417 square miles, and the population in 1915 was 7,973,257. President Hipólito Irigoyen was elected October 12, 1916, and is the

first Radical to fill that office. Argentina has preserved its neutrality despite the excitement created when the German ambassador was caught advising that Argentine vessels be let alone or sunk without leaving a trace. See "Spurlos Versenkt." Armed Merchantmen, Legal Status. "The enemy merchant ship has the right of defense against belligerent attack, and this right it can exercise against visit, for this indeed is the first act of capture. The attacked merchant ship can, indeed, itself seize the overpowered warship as a prize." (Dr. Hans Wehberg, a German authority on international law, quoted in American Journal of International Law, Oct. 1916, p. 871.) As a corollary of this right, an enemy merchant ship may, of course, arm for purely defensive purposes, without prejudice to its status as a merchant vessel either in neutral harbors or on the high seas. This is the position which our Government took at the outset of the war. Early in 1916, however, it approached both belligerents with the proposition that enemy merchantmen should forego their defensive right on condition that belligerent submarines should in all cases exercise visit and search preliminary to capture. This effort at compromise failing, our Government returned to its original stand on the established principles of law. The test of defensive armament is the use to which it is put, not its size. See McLemore Resolution; Re

sistance, Right of.

Armed Neutrality adopted toward Germany. On February 26, 1917, President Wilson went before Congress and asked authority "to supply our merchant ships with defensive arms, should that become necessary, and with the means of using them, and to employ any other instrumentalities or methods that may be necessary and adequate to protect our ships and our people in their legitimate and peaceful pursuits on the seas." A bill introduced to meet this request passed the House, but failed in the Senate on account of the termination of the session on March 4. Eight days later the Secretary of State informed the embassies and legations in Washington that in view of the renewal by Germany of unrestricted submarine warfare the United States had determined to place on all American merchant vessels sailing through the barred areas an armed guard for the protection of the vessels and the lives of the persons on board. No encounter appears to have occurred between an armed American merchant vessel and a German submarine previous to the declaration of a state of war between the United States and Germany. See McLemore Resolution; United States, Neutrality, 1914-17; War Zones.

Armenian Massacres. The name given to the organized attempts made by the Turks on at least three occasions to extirpate Armenians living in Asia Minor. The first series of massacres occurred in 1895-96, and appears to have had the aid of the Turkish Government. Again in 1909 outbreaks occurred at Adana, in Syria, and its vicinity, having at least the connivance of the Turkish Government. The third, and probably the worst, outbreak occurred in 1915, after Turkey entered the

war as Germany's ally. Thousands of the Armenian population of Asia Minor were either killed on the spot or else deported into the most inhospitable spots in the Ottoman Empire, there to die of starvation, exposure, and exhaustion. The total number of those who have lost their lives is not exactly known, but is large enough to brand such procedure as one of the most shamelessly brutal race massacres of all time. That religious differences or economic disturbances-the Armenians are the small capitalists of Asia Minor-are not responsible is proved by the fact that in normal times Armenian and Turk work together without grave friction. It would appear that the desire to eliminate an alien race and to destroy any possible allies for a Russian advance in Asia Minor are at the bottom of the affair; that it is the Government and not the average Turk who is responsible. Germany could have stopped the massacres by a word, but she withheld that word. For German testimony to Turkish atrocities in Armenia and responsibility of the German Government therefor, see the book by a former German army officer and war correspondent, Dr. Harry Stürmer, Two Years in Constantinople (trans., 1917).

Army. The Army of the United States consists (Dec. 1, 1917) of 1,360,000 men, excluding various small supplementary bodies. Of these the Regular Army includes 360,000, the former National Guard about 500,000, and the National Army about 500,000. Further forces will be drawn by volunteering, or by selection from the list of 9,659,382 men between ages 21 and 30, inclusive, who registered on June 5, 1917, under the act of May 18, 1917. The whole force is now in the service of the United States, and may be used at home or abroad. See National Army; National Guard; Regular Army.

Army Corps. The largest complete tactical and administrative unit in an army, which is composed of two or more corps. The corps is the appropriate command of a lieutenant general. In the United States service an army corps is formed by combining two or more divisions, under orders given by the President when he deems such a formation necessary. Such a corps may consist of corps headquarters, 6 complete divisions, and special corps troops, including 1 pioneer regiment of Infantry, 2 regiments of cavalry, 1 antiaircraft machine-gun battalion, 1 antiaircraft Artillery battalion, 1 trench mortar battalion, 1 field battalion, Signal Corps, 1 telegraph battalion, 1 aero wing, 1 regiment of Engineers, 1 pontoon train, 1 corps Artillery park, 1 remount depot, 1 veterinary hospital, 1 bakery company, 1 supply train, 1 troop transport train. In addition, 1 Artillery brigade, 1 sanitary train, and 1 corps Engineer park may be formed from detachments from the divisional organizations. Its approximate strength is 185,000 officers and men. See Division.

Army Organization. There are three principal fighting arms of the service-Infantry, Field Artillery, and Cavalry. The Infantry is organized in regiments of ten companies, brigades of two regiments each, and divisions of two brigades each.

The divisions of the Regular Army are numbered 1-25; those of the National Guard, 26-75; and those of the National Army, 76-. The fighting forces are served by the Staff, whose principal divisions are Quartermaster Corps, Ordnance, Medical Corps, Signal Corps, Engineer Corps. The General Staff, controlling and directing the whole establishment, under the President and the Secretary of War, has a War College and an Intelligence Bureau.

Army Service Schools. At Fort Leavenworth, Kans., a group of advanced schools for the instruction of selected officers in the problems of line, staff, signal, engineer, field and medical service.

Army War College. A school in Washington to which selected officers (captains and above) are sent to study the higher problems of war, and to work upon detailed plans of national defense. It was first organized in 1901, after the Spanish War, and our present military system is largely based upon its leadership. See General Staff.

Arras. An important city of northern France, the key to the German military positions from Cambrai to the sea. It was used in the German retreat to the "Hindenburg line." In the spring of 1917 the British prepared for an offensive north of Arras instead of planning to continue the battle of the Somme as the Germans had expected. The objectives of this offensive were Vimy Ridge, which controls the plains of Douai to the east, and the city of Lens, the great coal center of northern France. The Canadians captured Vimy Ridge on April 9, in a series of attacks up the valley of the Scarpe, and in June the British lines almost completely surrounded Lens. See "Hindenburg Line"; Somme.

Articles of War. The rules enacted by Congress providing for the system of military discipline and punishment in the Army, corresponding to the annual mutiny act in Great Britain. The latest form of the Articles of War will be found in the Army appropriation act of 1916.

Artillery. This war differs from previous wars chiefly in the enormous increase in the use of artillery, a fact due partly to the immense manufacturing resources of the countries at war, which enable them to produce great numbers of guns and great quantities of ammunition. It is due also to the new methods of directing gunfire from airplanes. It is evident that a gun can not be accurately aimed at an object the exact location of which is unknown. The airplane, however, is able to bring back or to signal back this information sometimes by wireless, so that the artillery may now be used with great effect, The size of the guns and the force of the explosive shells fired from them have also been largely increased. Field Artillery is the Artillery which accompanies the Army in the field, as distinguished from the Coast Artillery, which is permanently mounted in emplacements in the coast forts. Field Artillery is divided into Light, Horse, Heavy, and Mountain Artillery. The Light Artillery is armed with 3-inch guns, and the majority of

the men are not mounted, while the Horse Artillery usually accompanies Cavalry and the entire personnel is mounted. The Heavy Artillery is armed with guns above 3-inch caliber, including 6-inch guns and howitzers. Mountain Artillery is carried usually on pack mules, and is for use in difficult and mountainous country. See Battery; Battalion; Brigade; Regiment.

Asquith, Herbert Henry (1852- ). British statesman, Home Secretary in Gladstone's last ministry, Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1905, and Prime Minister in 1908. His attitude toward foreign affairs was characterized by the Liberal imperialism of Lord Rosebery; in domestic politics, while out of sympathy with the extreme Radicals, he advocated social reform, home rule for Ireland, the democratization of the electoral system, and especially restrictions upon the legislative veto of the House of Lords. The Parliament act of 1911, by which the House of Lords last its power to stop legislation passed by the Commons, will give Mr. Asquith a place in history. The opening of war with Germany proved that his efforts for better relations with that nation had been wasted. In 1915 he estabished a coalition cabinet. But the Dardanelles failure and the Mesopotamian fiasco put his Government on the defensive. The opposition of certain powerful newspapers, the unwillingness of Mr. Lloyd George to support him further, and the widespread feeling that his Government was not sufficiently energetic forced his resignation on December 5, 1916. See Coalition Cabinet.

Assassination. Even that rather grim publication, the German War Book, condemns recourse to assassination as a method of warfare. To the same effect is the following provision from Article XXIII of the Hague Regulations: "It is especially forbidden . . . to kill or wound treacherously individuals belonging to the hostile nation or army." However, in the political testament of the late military governor of Belgium, which was recently made public by Gen. von Bissing's friend, Herr Bacmeister, a member of the Reichstag, there is a direct hint that Albert of Belgium ought to be dethroned and done away with. "Machiavelli," the document then proceeds, "says that when one wants to annex a State it is advisable to get rid of its sovereign even by murdering him." This citation of Machiavelli, who wrote 400 years ago, illustrates a type of current German military morality. The testament is given in extenso in the Times (London) History of the War, pt. 156, p. 478. Its authenticity is supported by a letter of von Bissing to Dr. Stresemann, a member of the Reichstag, Jan. 14, 1917. See Forbidden Methods of Warfare.

Atrocities. The first months of the war witnessed the inauguration by Germany of a policy of terror in the invaded districts of Belgium and France, evidently premeditated and designed to facilitate the control of conquered territory. Villages and towns were burned, wounded soldiers massacred, noncombatants shot or maimed, women outraged, and children tortured by the soldiery. Allegations of similar practices on the