carried out by Messrs Shanks and Johnson, of the Patent Type Founding Company. The method is as follows:-A chart is drawn in the Meteorological Office, and this is then copied at a reduced scale, by means of a pantograph working a drill, on a block of a special material, on which the outline of the land has already been impressed. The information contained is very limited, consisting only of the isobaric lines, a few temperatures, and some words relating to the state of the sky and the sea. As soon as the chart is engraved the block is placed in a mould, and a cast of type-metal is made, which can then be set up with type as soon as it is cool. The whole process takes less than an hour.

Alterations in the Level of Rivers.-Herr G. Wex, the director of the great Danube works at Vienna, has handed in to the Imperial Academy an elaborate report on the extent to which the mean level of rivers is falling, so as seriously to interfere with navigation, while at the same time the floods are increasing in height and severity. These actions are both produced by the same cause, the clearing of forest, which causes the rain water to run more rapidly off the land, instead of being retained there to feed the springs and maintain a constant supply for the head waters of rivers. The Academy referred the subject to a committee, which has presented a report confirmatory of Herr Wex's views, and it has been resolved to endeavour to collect information on the subject

The Origin of Cyclones.-As might be expected, the views of M. Faye, which we noticed in our issue of April 3, have not long remained unassailed, for in the Comptes Rendus of March 15, M. Peslin, one of the ablest contributors to the mathematical theory of the ascending currents of air, has formally challenged M. Faye to state the grounds on which he bases his ideas of the descent of the air in a cyclone from the upper regions of the atmosphere. M. Faye, in reply, simply takes the case of a "trombe," or whirlwind, and says that as this phenomenon appears while the air at the earth's surface is at rest, the entire movement must take its rise in the upper strata, whose rapid motion is visible in the passage of the clouds across the sky. In the next number, for April 5, M. Peslin rejoins that the direct connexion between waterspouts and cyclones has yet to be established by observation, and that duststorms certainly indicate an ascending current, not a descending one. He finally proposes to test his opponent's theory by the possibility of explaining by its means the excessive rainfall of cyclones. M. Faye, in his answer, does not take up the lastmentioned question, but confines himself to a reiteration of the identity of origin of all rotatory motions, insisting on the statement that none of

the ascensional theories will account for the advance of a cyclone from the place where it takes its rise.

of the Statistical Office of Würtemberg, has reHailstorms in Würtemberg-Herr Cameron,

years, from all countries.

Relation of the Velocity of the Wind to the Gradients. In the 6th and 7th numbers of the Austrian Journal for Meteorology, Dr. Hann gives at some length a notice of the views of Ferrel (in Silliman's Journal for November, 1874), who attributes the origin of storms to the mechanical action of currents at the earth's surface, in contradistinction to those who seek for their cause in the physical action of heat producing an ascending current. Dr. Hann himself is an adherent to the mechanical theory of the production of the barometrical depression at the centre of the cyclone mainly by the two agencies, the effect of the earth's rotation, and centrifugal force. As regards the former, he shows on mechanical principles that any current of air must give rise to a reduction of pressure on its left-hand side in the northern hemisphere, so that the gradient is, in great measure, an effect of the motion of the wind. In reference to the latter, he points out the error of Loomis' oft-quoted statement that centrifugal force could not of itself generate a depression of more than 0.005 in. One great difference between tropical cyclones and similar storms of higher latitudes, according to Hann, consists in the fact that in the former it is the centrifugal force, in the latter the earth's rotation, which plays the principal part. A digest of Ferrel's mathematical reasoning, dealing with a supposed spiral motion of the air, and taking account of friction, follows, with which, however, Dr. Hann does not entirely agree; but the equations show that the velocity is not strictly proportional to the gradients in all parts of the cyclone, and that the value of this velocity for the same gradient is nearly inversely proportional to the sine of the latitude, so that it is much higher in the Torrid than in the Temperate zone. All the nonperiodic variations of the barometer are related to the passage of cyclonic disturbances near the place of observation, and so at the Equator, where there are no cyclones, these variations vanish. The investigation further shows that if the friction be assumed to vary as the velocity, the entire difference of pressure between the outer and inner portions of the cyclone, or the total gradient, must vary as the square of the sine of latitude, and accordingly the barometrical oscillations must increase with the latitude in that proportion. The theory would therefore not only account for the irregular oscillations of the barometer, but for their increase with the latitude.

by hail in that country in the forty-six years, 1828-73, as shown by the amount of taxes remitted to the various parishes on account of such damage. The average annual cost during the entire period is about 116,000. It appears clearly from the subjoined figures that hailstorms and thunderstorms are steadily increasing in severity, for the following are the average amounts of area (in hectares) damaged on each day of storm:

The districts chiefly exposed to damage are those lying on the edge of wooded mountains, while the open lowlands are comparatively exempt.

Relations between Pressure and Velocity of Wind. In the Proceedings of the Berlin Academy for 1874, Herr G. Hagen has published a paper

"On the Resistance of the Air to a Plane Surface moved in a direction normal to its Plane." He finds that the conversion of pressure to velocity accords well with the theory if the periphery of the plate be taken into account, for the friction of. the air on the edge of the plate causes an increase of resistance. On the other hand, no difference was observed between plates with rough and smooth surfaces. Herr Hagen's formula is:

P = (0·00707 + 0·000125 S) Av2. P is the pressure, S the periphery of the plate, A its area, v the velocity of the wind. Pis in grammes. S, A, and v are said to be given in decimètres.

Wind and Weather.-We are glad to welcome

a German edition of Professor Mohn's handbook, Om Wind og Wejr,* which in its Norsk dress was almost a sealed book to British meteorologists. charts re-drawn, and is issued with a preface by The work has been carefully revised and the Dr. Neumayer. As its title shows, it is not a treatise on general meteorology, but is an eminently popular account of that portion of it which relates to practical weather knowledge, with occasional digressions into climatology, and, as might be expected, it has a special reference to the conditions of weather with which its author is most familiar-those of North-western Europe. This is hardly a defect for us in these islands, and * Grundzüge der Meteorologie, die Lehre von Wind

und Wetter. Von H. Mohn Berlin Reiner, 1875.

GEOLOGY.

A MEMOIR on the Geology of the Burnley coalfield, just issued by the Geological Survey, forms the fourteenth Report which the Survey has pub lished in explanation of the structure of the coalfields of Great Britain. The present volume contains a description of the highly-developed carboniferous series of North Lancashire, including the small fields of Burnley and Blackburn, and taking in the country around Clitheroe, Chorley, Haslingden, Preston, and Todmorden. The memoir has been written chiefly by Professor Hull and Mr. R. H. Tiddeman, the latter acting as general editor, assisted by Messrs. J. C. Ward, J. B. Dakyns, W. Gunn, and C. E. De Rance. Some palaeontological details are contributed by Mr. Etheridge.

IN the course of a lecture at the Royal Institu tion on Friday, March 23, Professor Ramsay of developed an interesting argument in support his proposition that the Alps in pre-miocene times were probably higher than they are now, notwithstanding the fact that their present elevation is due to subsequent upheaval. That the Alps suffered very extensive denudation during the miocene period is amply demonstrated by reference to the enormous thickness of freshwater and marine deposits of miocene age now spread over Switzerland; these deposits having been formed by the degradation of the old Alps. An elevation of upwards of 5,000 feet took place after the deposition of these strata, but the Alps continued to suffer denudation during the pliocene and post-pliocene ages, although it is difficult to estimate the extent of this loss. The lecturer showed by detailed calculations that the amount of material worn away in the miocene period would alone have been sufficient to raise the premiocene Alps to a considerable elevation.

ATTENTION has been called by the Rev. A. Irving, of Nottingham, to an interesting section of Rhaetic beds, overlain by boulder-clay, exposed

in the cutting of a railway now in course of construction between Melton Mowbray and Nottingham. It is expected that when the cutting is completed an exposure will be obtained, second only to the celebrated section at Westbury-onSevern. It may be mentioned that an excellent account of the geological structure of the country around Nottingham has been contributed by Mr. Irving to a recent number of the Proceedings of the Geologists' Association. While giving a concise abstract of previous writings on this district, it embodies the results of much original observation.

A RECENT visit to the Falls of Niagara has enabled Mr. T. Belt to suggest some modifications in the views usually entertained with respect to the time occupied in the excavation of the gorge. His argument is published in the April number of the Quarterly Journal of Science. It is generally supposed that the entire gorge from Queenstown to the Falls, a distance of seven miles, has been excavated by the present river since the Glacial period. Sir Charles Lyell estimated that the river is cutting its way back at the rate of about one foot per annum, but Mr. Belt believes that the retrocession does not proceed at more than onetenth of this rate. He maintains, too, that the gorge from the whirlpool to the falls was cut out in pre-glacial times, and that the present river has excavated only that portion of the gorge which

is worn out in the softer beds between the whirlpool and Queenstown; its work above that point having been confined to clearing out the bed of the old pre-glacial river in the harder rocks. Mr. Belt believes that the facts connected with Niagara lend support to his views which refer the occurrence of the Glacial epoch to a more recent period than that usually assumed.

AFTER studying the earthquake phenomena of Southern Italy, Professor Suess has laid a paper on this subject before the Vienna Academy of Sciences. In this communication he describes the geological structure of Sicily and the southern part of the Italian peninsula. He concludes that the older rocks of this district, with the patches on the western coast, are to be regarded as a continuation of the Alps, while the western side of the peninsula represents a vast area of subsidence. He recognizes three classes of earthquake-shocks in Sicily and Calabria: namely, eruptive shocks, which have their centre in a volcano, and affect only the immediate neighbourhood; radial shocks, which radiate from the volcano in definite lines; and peripheral shocks, which appear to have no immediate relation with a volcano. His observations sufficiently show the connexion generally existing between volcanoes and earthquakes. CLOSELY related to these studies of Professor Suess are those of Mr. Judd on the volcanic phenomena of Italy. A series of papers on this subject are in course of publication in the Geological Magazine. We understand that Mr. Judd has recently started for Hungary, where he intends to study the eruptive rocks which form so marked a feature in the geology of that area.

ALL subjects relating to Arctic exploration are just now so popular, that Mr. De Rance has done good service by collecting such scraps of information as are to be found on the geology of the Arctic regions, and publishing a concise abstract of them in the columns of Nature. His abstracts are accompanied by a map which exhibits what little is known of the structure of these regions.

MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. PHYSICAL SOCIETY (Saturday, April 10). PROFESSOR G. C. FOSTER, Vice-President, in the Chair.-Professor H. M'Leod communicated to the society some observations on the defects of the human eye as regards achromatism.

The eve has been considered to be achromatic because it practically is so; but it is easy to offer

fortified position, surrounded by earthworks and moats the sides of which were in some parts revetted with stone. Two quadrangular areas have been traced out by Mr. Blakesley, com

abundant evidence of the defects of the organ in this respect. For instance, to short-sighted persons the moon appears to have a blue fringe. In using the spectroscope the red and blue ends of the spectrum cannot be seen with equal dis-prising together with the rock a space of about tinctness without adjusting the focussing glass. A black patch of paper on a blue ground appears to have a fringed edge if viewed from even a short distance; while a black patch on a red ground, when observed under similar conditions, has a perfectly distinct margin. Professor M'Leod then explained that the overlapping of images in the eye produces the mental impression that there is no want of achromatism. It is interesting to note that Wollaston considered that the coloured bands of the spectrum were really divided by the black (Fraunhofer) lines, and his statement that the red end of the spectrum does not appear to have a boundary line "because the eye is not competent to converge the red rays properly," shows that he had very nearly, if not quite, discovered the achromatic defects of the eye. Dr. Young ascribes to Wollaston the merit of having observed that when a luminous point is viewed through a prism, the blue end appears to be wider than the red, the eye being incapable of recognising that the spectrum has the same width throughout its entire length. An experiment

was

exhibited to show the relative distinctness of a dark line on grounds of various colours. A string or wire was so arranged that its shadow traversed the entire length of the spectrum, which was thrown on a screen by an electric

lamp. When viewed from a short distance the edges of the shadow appeared to be sharp at the red end, but gradually became less distinct, until at the blue end nothing but a blurred line remained.

Dr. W. H. Stone considered that the paper was specially valuable as suggesting a possible mode of investigating the relation between the defects of the eye and the personal co-efficient of error in

observation.

Professor Guthrie showed a kaleidoscope devised by Mr. R. Cowper, in which the usual geometrical effects were produced by fragments of mica illuminated by polarised light.

Mr. Wilson, Demonstrator in the Physical Laboratory, South Kensington, exhibited a modification of Thomson's electrometer, which might be readily constructed at a small expense. He used two discs of glass, and replaced the usual brass quadrants by tinfoil; the connexion between the binding screws and the quadrants was effected by fusible solder and platinum wires.

The Chairman then alluded to the lamented

death of a member of the Society, Mr. C. Becker, of the firm of Messrs. Elliot, whose loss will be severely felt in every laboratory in this country.

ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY (Monday, April 19). SIR EDWARD COLEBROOKE, Bart., M.P., in the Chair. The Rev. S. Beal read a paper "On Mount Meru and the Origin of the Homeric Olympus," the purport of which was to show that the legends connected with Mount Meru, found in the Chinese Buddhist books, betrayed a common origin with the Greek conception of the Olympos as the abode of their gods. To prove this view, Mr. Beal proceeded to compare the nature and attributes of the deities which are represented as occupying the different zones and peaks of Mount Meru with those of corresponding Greek deities, viz., Sun, Moon, Bacchus, Demeter, Here, Hephaistos, and Athene. In the discussion which ensued Messrs. E. L. Brandreth, F. Pincott, and the chairman took part.

The Dean of Lincoln then read a paper "On the Ruins of Sigiri," by his son, Mr. T. H. Blakesley, of the Public Works Department, Ceylon. The rock of Sigiri, in the northern extremity of the Central Provinces of Ceylon, which rises some 500 feet above the surrounding plain, appears in early times to have constituted the citadel of a

600 acres, and defended not only by the walls and moats above mentioned, but on the eastern side by a large artificial lake, which was doubtless also used for the purposes of agricultural irrigation. Extensive earthworks (bunds) for the diversion of running water into particular channels may be traced in different directions for two or three miles. The locality has been for centuries thickly covered with jungle, and all that now remains of the lake is a swamp occupying only a portion of its former extent; but there are still to be seen paintings on parts of the surface of the great rock of a very remarkable character, apparently suggesting the existence of close relations between China and Ceylon. Mr. Blakesley ascribes the earthworks and some of the bunds at Sigiri to King Kásyapa the Parricide, who lived in the fifth century of our era; and the completion of the water arrangements to Parákrama Báhu in the middle of the twelfth century. Earlier than either of them-indeed as early as the first century, B.C.—are, in his opinion, the walls of cyclopean masonry still to be seen at Mapa-gala, a pair of rocks about half a mile south of the rock of Sigiri. United with the works about the latter, the whole must have constituted a military position of almost unparalleled strength against the appliances of Oriental warfare.

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON (Tuesday,
April 20).

ROBERT HUDSON, ESQ., F.R.S., Vice-President, in the Chair.-The Secretary read a report on the additions that had been made to the Society's Menagerie during the month of March, 1875, animals:-An Indian wild dog (Canis primaevus, and called particular attention to the following Hodgs.) from British Burmah, presented March 3, India; three crested black kites (Baza lophotes); by Lord Northbrook, the Governor-General of Hamadryad snake (Ophiophagus elaps), obtained a Himalayan magpie (Pica bottanensis); and a by purchase; and a bearded falcon (Falco biarmicus), presented by Captain Parry, of the barque R. J. Wardlaw-Ramsay, dated Tonghoo, British Isabella Blyth. A letter was read from Lieutenant Burmah, November 22, 1874, containing additional remarks on the woodpecker (Gecinus erythropygius) described by him at a former meeting (P.Z.S. 1874, p. 212, pl. xxxv.). Mr. Edward R. Alston exhibited and made remarks on a phiurus murinus, Desm.) from West Africa. rufous variety of the Murine dormouse (GraMr. W. B. Tegetmeier exhibited and made remarks on two hybrid pheasants, the result of a cross between Phasianus colchicus and Euplocamus nycthemerus. Mr. A. H. Garrod read a paper on the structure of the deep plantar tendons in different birds, in which the different modes of arrangement of these tendons were pointed out, and their importance in the classification of the order insisted upon.

A communication was read from Mr. R. J. Lechmere-Guppy on the occurrence of Helix coactiliata in Trinidad, and on the general distribution of the land and fresh-water mollusca of that island. A second communication from Mr. Guppy contained a note on a variety of Bulimus constrictus found in Venezuelan Guiana. A communication was read from the Rev. O. P. Cambridge, in which he gave descriptions of nine new species of spiders of the genus Erigone additional to those described in a former communication on the same subject. A communication was read from Mr. George Gulliver containing a description of the spermatozoa of the Lamprey (Petromyzon marinus). Mr. R. B. Sharpe exhibited and made remarks on some specimens of some rare species of birds of prey, lately received by the British Museum from Australia.

DR. R. J. MANN, President, in the Chair.-Mr. Scott read a paper, "Notes on Sea Temperature Observations on the Coasts of the British Islands." He said that it mainly related to the connexion between sea temperature and the take of fish on the coasts, and he noticed the investigations formerly carried on by the Dutch in this direction, and that now in progress under the direction of the Scottish Meteorological Society. He read a letter from Mr. F. Buckland on the subject, which, however, proposed a scheme of action which would entail heavy expenditure; while at present there was no satisfactory record kept of the take of fish on any coasts except those of Scotland. Mr. Scott then said that he had had some observations of sea temperature taken at some stations in the West of England and on the coasts of the Irish Sea, and had received some observations from Mr. W. Dymond and from Mr. N. Whitley; and he submitted some monthly mean temperatures from a few stations. He also stated that both the Trinity House and the Commissioners of Irish Lights had kindly consented to have observations taken at certain light-ships,

and that instruments had been supplied for the

In

purpose, and the enquiry was in progress. conclusion, he mentioned the steps taken by the German Government to investigate the temperature, &c., of the sea on their Baltic and North Sea coasts, and expressed a hope that our Government would undertake a similar enquiry.

Mr. Pastorelli read a paper on "The Errors of Low-Range Thermometers." He pointed out some of the difficulties which instrument makers have to encounter in graduating thermometers from 32° 0 to 37°.9, the freezing point of mercury, as there is no intermediate fixed point. He

lieved that fairly accurate thermometers could only be obtained by calibration.

the object of opening up and restoring trade between Bengal and Tibet. Mr. Markham described the journey of Mr. Bogle, by way of the Chumbi valley, across the Tsanpu, by means of flatbottomed barges, up to Desheripgay, the Lama's residence. The Lama made a deep and lasting impression on Mr. Bogle by his winning manner, and his nephew, the Pyn Kushus, also showed him great hospitality. Both the Lama and Mr. Bogle unfortunately died in the same year, and so no permanent results came of this friendship, for when Captain Turner was sent a few years later, the Teshu Lama's successor was an infant of

seven.

The other traveller, T. Manning, was a mathematical tutor at Cambridge, who determined to visit Tibet. Charles Lamb, who was his friend, tried to dissuade him, writing: "The reading of Chaucer has misled you. Do not credit his foolish stories about Cambuscan and the ring and the horse of brass. Believe me, there are no such things. Tis all the poet's invention. Pray try and cure yourself. Take hellebore. Pray to avoid the fiend. Read no books of voyages, they are nothing but lies; and oh! do not go to Independent Tartary." All this was in vain, and Manning set out in disguise, the Company having apparently refused to give him any commission. He went past the ring-shaped lake of Palti, crossed the Tsanpu, and reached Lhasa, where he was much struck with the Dalai Lama. He returned to India by the way he came, leaving Lhasa April 19, 1812.

Mr. Markham then gave an account of the work of exploration in Tibet done by Colonel Montgomerie's emissaries—the Pundit of 1865, who traversed Nepal, and journeyed down the Tsanpu to Lhasa; the explorer of 1871, who reached Shigbeatzje, and the more recent journey of the Tibetan who has surveyed Lake Namcho or Tengri-Nor. Mr. Markham concluded by enumerating the passes leading from Bengal into Tibet, and the prospects of trade between the two countries; the products of the first named, which reach Tibet by cottons, coral, pearls, tobacco, opium, and some way of Nepal and Ladak, consisting of broadcloth, rich stuffs; and the exports from Tibet being blankets, musk, cowtails, borax, ponies, gold and silver. The great wealth of the country being its flocks and herds, wool and ghee might be imported to an enormous extent.

M. Louis Redier exhibited his new barograph, which was explained to the meeting by Mr. Symons.

Mr. Scott also exhibited Professor Wild's pres

sure anemometer.

ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY (Monday,
April 26).

A MOST interesting paper was read by Mr. Markham on "Travels in Great Tibet and Trade Routes between Tibet and Bengal." At the outset Mr. Markham observed that, until that very evening, no account of Great Tibet derived from personal observation of an actual traveller had ever been submitted to the Society, with the exception of that by Colonel Montgomerie's Pundit in 1865. He (Mr. Markham) was, however, enabled to lay before them the experiences of Mr. George Bogle, an emissary of Warren Hastings, and Mr. Thomas Manning, a private traveller-two individuals whose journals had never been published, but were now about to be utilised. Mr. Markham then briefly touched upon the survey of Great Tibet made by the Lama surveyors in 1708, the journeys of Fathers Grueber and Dorville from Peking by way of Lhasa across Nepal to Agra, and of other priests, whose accounts had enabled Klaproth, H. Strachey and others to define the geography of the country. Mr. Markham described this latter part of the subject, and drew a striking parallel between Great Tibet and the Collao of Peru. He pointed out that communication between Tibet and Bengal was at one time frequent and unchecked, but that, according to the Lamas, it fell off after the Mohammadan conquests in India, and the jealous policy of the Chinese prevented its re

newal.

At the time of the English war with Bhutan, the Teshu Lama endeavoured to make peace between the combatants, and Warren Hastings clinched the opportunity of entering into negotiations by despatching Mr. Bogle as envoy, with

Colonel Montgomerie explained his method of training natives for trans-frontier exploration round India after the fashion of a cordon. There were still, however, strips of unknown land waiting to be explored-200 miles of the course of the Upper Indus, and 350 miles of the lower Tsanpu, besides all the vast region extending between Yarkand and the desert of Gobi-and some enterprising Englishman would do well to endeavour to throw open this region.

Sir George Campbell, K.C.S.I., observed that very great credit was due to Mr. Markham for having unearthed and brought to light the valuable journals of Bogle and Manning, as well as to Colonel Montgomerie for his admirable system of exploration by native agency. He defended the exclusive policy of the Chinese, and said it was a natural policy in view of our expanding Indian empire. He drew attention to the various sources of information respecting Tibet, laying stress upon the value of Huc and Gabet's work, and expressed an opinion that trade, by way of the Assam Valley and Bathang, deserved much more attention than had been bestowed upon it.

Sir Cecil Beadon, K.C.S.I., related the steps taken during the time of his Lieut.-Governorship to revive trade with Tibet. He feared, however, it could never attain important dimensions.

Sir R. Alcock briefly expressed his entire concurrence with Sir. G. Campbell's views respecting the Chinese policy.

The President (Sir. H. Rawlinson) then enumerated the services rendered to the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India, and to geographical

science, by Mr. Johnson, Governor of Ladak, who in turn briefly acknowledged the compliment,

The President then announced the award of the two gold medals for the year to Messrs. Weyprecht and Payer, of the Austro-Hungarian Arctic Expe dition, as well as the result of the public school examinations in geography for the gold and bronze medals of the Society. The subject of the next meeting will be "Arctic Sledge Travelling," by Sir L. McClintock.

GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY (Wednesday, April 28). J. EVANS, ESQ., F.R.S., President, in the Chair. In a paper "On Stagonolepis Robertsoni," Professor Huxley described the investigations which he had made on the structure of this reptile, since he described it before the Society seventeen years ago. He now exhibited a collection of fragments and impressions of bone in the yellow Triassic sandstone of Lossiemouth, accompanied by a number of plaster casts obtained from the sandstone moulds. In these remains we have representatives of all parts of the vertebral column, except the axis and atlas; the vertebrae had amphicoelus

centra.

There are also mutilated fragments of the skull, and a considerable number of teeth; the

pectoral arch, including the ankylosed scapula and humerus, sacrum, ilium, ischium, femora, and coracoid, and the characteristic interclavicle; the probably other bones. From these data it appears from twelve to fourteen feet in length, armed with that the Stagonolepis was a crocodilian reptile, two rows of ridged scutes on the dorsal, and Huxley's studies of the recent and extinct forms with a plastron on the ventral surface. Professor

of Crocodilia have enabled him to trace the suc

cessive steps in the evolution of this group. He recognises three distinct sections-the Eusuchia, including the existing forms and the extinct species down to the later cretaceous deposits; the Mesosuchia, embracing the Crocodilian fossils from the Wealden beds to the Upper Lias; and the Parasuchia, including the Triassic forms-Stagenolepis and Belodon. It is notable that, as the older groups differ from the modern Crocodilia Sorby described the remains of a fossil Forest of they approach to the Lacertilian type. Mr. H. C. Sigillaria exposed in the grounds of the County Lunatic Asylum at Wadsley, near Sheffield. From the direction in which the roots ramify through the shale Mr. Sorby has ingeniously sought to determine the direction of the prevailing winds at the time the forest flourished. Professor Nicholson offered some notes on Favistella stellata and F. calicina, with remarks on the affinities of Favistella and allied genera.

ROYAL SOCIETY (Thursday, April 29). THE following papers were read:-"On some Particulars of the Transit of Venus, December 9, 1874, observed on the Himalaya Mountains, Mussoorie. Note No. 2, and Appendix to Notes," by J. B. N. Hennessey; "On a Continuous Selfregistering Thermometer," by W. H. Cripps.

FINE ART.

ART BOOKS.

Troy and its Remains. (Murray.) The appearance of Dr. Schliemann's book on Troy in its origi nal German form gave occasion to so much criticism in these columns that they may fairly be consi dered closed against any revival of the issues involved by his discoveries. We can therefore speak only of the new English dress in which the book appears, and of that only in high terms of praise towards all concerned the translator Miss Dora Schmitz, the editor Mr. Philip Smith, and the engraver Mr. Cooper. So satisfactory, indeed, is the translation, that from the beginning we became suspicious lest under its smoothness might lurk mistakes in technical matters, but must confess to having found only one, and that is on p. 24, where the bronze tablet from Idalium

in Cyprus is spoken of as the bronze table. On p. 47 it is a typographical error to spell the name of Koumanoudes as Kommanoudes. In the place of Schliemann's enormous, confused, and cumbrous atlas of photographs, we have here interspersed with the text, and in a number of plates at the end, engravings many of them admirably executed of views and every object of importance found in the excavations. An appendix giving the results of the most recent investigations in the matter of the inscribed whorls and other objects found by Schliemann, an introduction on the vital question as to the site of Troy, and numerous footnotes, testify to the editorial care with which a once very tiresome book has now become agreeable and most interesting reading.

Chronograph of the Bow, Chelsea, and Derby Manufactories. By W. F. Tiffin. (Salisbury.) A carefully-written manual of the three manufactories arranged in parallel columns, thus enabling the reader to follow the contemporary history of each. To this Mr. Tiffin has added a table of marks, derived either from specimens in his own collection or from unquestionable authority. Many of these are probably only workmen's marks; among them is one which he assigns to Thomas Frye, the original manager of the Bow works, which has been often considered to be an imitation of the Oriental character for "jade;" but Mr. Tiffin's suggestion deserves attention. The F in the mark is reversed, and, as Frye was an engraver as well as a painter, it might naturally occur to him so to make his monogram. The vexed question of the triangle occurring on the pieces of the three manufactories has yet to be settled. Mr. Tiffin evidently writes from his own personal experience, and his book is consequently valuable.

Exhibition of Embroidery, Ancient and Modern: Catalogue of the Liverpool Art Club. The Liverpool Art Club last year added much to our knowledge of Oriental art by their Japanese exhibition. This year they appear in an exhibition of embroidery, which contains many objects of interest. Mr. J. Bowes sends several examples of Persian embroidery in gold spangles and twisted thread, and there are many pieces of ecclesiastical embroidery of great interest, among which may be particularised a velvet cope, made at Florence by order of Henry VII., and which he bequeathed by will to the Abbey of Westminster, of" clothe of gold tissue wrought with our badgies of rede roses and poortcoleys," which he says he caused to be made at "Florence in Italie." The ornamentation consists of two twining stems bearing red and white roses, the Beaufort badge introduced into the border with the SS. collar; St. Dunstan's vestments, so called from the representation of the conflict of the saint, pincers in hand; the Martyrdom of St. Thomas of Canterbury, with canopied saints completing the decorations, all in the work called opus plumarium. Other specimens of interest we have not space to mention.

Histoire du Costume en France depuis les Temps les plus reculés jusqu'à la fin du xviii. Siècle. Par J. Quicherat. (Paris: Hachette.) Le Dixhuitième Siècle. Par Paul Lacroix. (Paris: Didot.) The exhibition of the Union Centrale, illustrative of the History of Costume, has awakened attention to the subject, and has shown how instructive is the study of dress as relating to art. The history of costume in France has been undertaken by M. Quicherat, director of the Ecole des Chartes, whose erudition and serious study of the past eminently qualify him for the task. He writes, as he says, specially in the interests of artists:"Témoin de l'embarras où se trouvent la plupart de nos artistes lorsqu'ils ont à représenter un sujet de notre histoire ancienne, je me suis appliqué à leur procurer le manuel qui leur manquait. Ils trouveront dans le texte la notice générale du costume de chaque époque, et dans les légendes des figures, lorsque les figures elles-mêmes ne leur suffiront pas, l'indication des ouvrages auxquels ils pourront recourir."

Such is the plan of this work, which is ably carried out and profusely illustrated by engravings from original documents. M. Quicherat divides his work into thirty-two chapters, assigning four for the early periods, as many for the Middle Ages, ten for the Valois kings, three for Henry IV. and his son, four for Louis XIV., taking his youth, the height of his splendour, and the solemn monotony of his declining years, when under the influence of the ambitious woman he had married without daring to acknowledge. The remaining chapters finish the century. A love of ornament, says M. Quicherat, preceded the wearing of clothes. To stain the skin with vegetable or mineral colours, to paint the body with figures, to decorate and arrange the hair, and to suspend to the person small

objects which shine at a distance, or jingle in walking, are adornments to which no nation, howperiods, we arrive at the Middle Ages, when men's ever primitive, is a stranger. Traversing the earlier dress, which for 600 years had been short, now becomes long, a change attributed to the contact of the Normans with their countrymen in Apulia and Sicily, who had adopted the luxurious habits of the Greeks and Saracens. Under Francis I. again a sensible change took place in French manners, in consequence of the presence of ladies at Court. The King loved dress, the costumes were more elegant, and all concurred to make the French Court the most brilliant of the age. The reign of Louis XIV., in his early years, was all splendour, profusion, and magnificence; but after his morose old age the Regency appears as a carnival. Here begins the work of M. Lacroix, whose writings on the preceding ages are so well known. In this he enters on a period so near our

The

begins with the thirteenth century, with the animals facing each other (affrontés), the true Persian type, which we find in the embroidered towels that decorate the izba of the Russian peasant, as well as in the costly Sicilian fabric which he gives in illustration. The furniture of the bed of Henry II. is a good specimen of Renaissance decoration, and of similar appliqué workmanship is a table cover executed in black velvet upon white satin, in which the grotesques rival in beauty, delicacy, and variety those on the maiolica of Urbino. On one plate M. Dupont-Auberville gives specimens of the branche tronquée style, derived from the Knollect stitch, imprise of the Burgundians during their faction with the ArmagA gorgeous plate of which the imprise of the roi soleil forms the centre, shows the style formed on the inspirations of Bérain, and the ribbon pattern of the seventeenth century turning into reserves" or medallions finishes the first number of a work of the greatest promise.

nacs.

dite la Reine Mathilde, exposée à la BiblioNotice Historique et Descriptive sur la Tapisserie thèque de Bayeux, par l'Abbé Laffetay. (Bayeux, 1874.) Queen Matilda's tapestry has been so often described and so faithfully reproduced as, one would suppose, to require no further chronicler; but the Abbé Laffetay, as its curator in his capacity of librarian at Bayeux, has deemed it incumbent on him to add another notice of this

tapestry of world-wide renown. Exposed on fête days during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries in the Cathedral of Bayeux, and mentioned in an inventory of 1496, the "grande toile du Conquest d'Angleterre" had in the eighteenth fallen into oblivion, when Montfaucon drew it from its place of concealment. In revolutionary '92 it had a narrow escape from destruction, being taken to cover a baggage-waggon. When Napoleon I. was preparing his invasion of England, he caused the tapestry to be exhibited at the Louvre; it was then restored to Bayeux, and rolled round a cylinder for exhibition till 1842, when it was frames. The Abbé Laffetay enters into the questransferred to the library and placed in glass tion of the age of the tapestry, and considers it as belonging to the eleventh century, and contemporary with, if not the actual work of, Queen Its admirable reproduction by Stothard is familiar to the visitors of the South Ken

Matilda.

Le Missel d'Uzès. Par M. le Docteur Desbarreaux-Bernard. (Toulouse.) This learned bookcollector of Toulouse has found in the library of the Abbé Pélissier, curator of the Cathedral of Uzès, a missal printed at Lyons, in 1495, hitherto unknown even to M. Péricaud, the historian of the Lyonese works of the fifteenth century. Its title

is

own, yet so different, and separated by a revolution. His book is not confined to dress alone, but he gives an account of the institutions, customs, and society of this remarkable age, of which we have such lively representations in the writings and artists of the time. It is from that source that M. Lacroix takes his illustrations. Watteau, Boucher, Lancret, Cochin, Chardin, and a host of others, furnish pictures not only of costume, but also of the Court fêtes, balls at the opera, street scenes, &c. His work may be styled "The Eighteenth Century, painted by itself." sumptuous formal elegance of the Court of Louis XIV. gave place to the greatest licence caprice and fancy could suggest. Fashions changed with manners, and the elegances of the boudoir sington Museum. replaced the stately solemnity of the "grands appartements." The eighteenth is the great century of French fashion in its wildest extravagance, identified with "paniers," powdered headdress, and rouge. When Marie Thérèse arrived to marry the Dauphin, she refused to sacrifice herself to this last fashion; a family council was held at Versailles, followed by a formal order from the King, to which she had no alternative but to submit. We leave it to the reader to follow M. Lacroix to the end of the century. The interest of his book is enhanced by the circumstance generations which have so immediately preceded us. of its describing the tastes and occupations of the L'Ornement des Tissus, Recueil Historique et Pratique. Par M. Dupont-Auberville. Planches. (Paris: Bachelin Deflorenne.) The author of this work, a gentleman of Normandy of high artistic tastes, is best known to the English public by his superb collection of lace, chronologically arranged, by which he added so materially to the instruction conveyed by the International Exhibition of Lace. In Paris, M. Dupont-Auberville contributed to the Museum of Costume a series of specimens of textiles from the earliest times to the nineteenth century, also arranged in chronological order, which collection he has generously offered to the national museum. No writer is better qualified for his task, from his thorough practical knowledge of the subject. His work is to be illustrated by 100 chromolithographs, of which the first number gives a favourable earnest.

Cent

He

"Explicit Missale secundum usum ecclesiae Ucesiensis, impressum Lugdiai per magistrum Johannem Numester de Maguncia, et Michaelem Topie. Anno domini M.CCCC.XCV. Die vero septima mensis Augusti ii." This superscription, establishes a fact worthy of remark: it is the presence at Lyons, in 1495, of the printer John Numester (of Mayence) whose name appears for the first time in the copy of the "Tractatus de celebratione missarum of Gutenberg, belonging to the library of M. Chartreux at Mayence. It will be admitted that the discovery of a book printed at Lyons, at the end of the fifteenth century, by the pupil and partner of the inventor of typography, is both curious and important. M. Desbarreaux-Bernard shows that Numester, who assisted Gutenberg at Mayence, Emilianus de Orfinis at Foligno, Michel Topie at Lyons, and who is also supposed to have been called to Albi (Tarn) by Cardinal d'Amboise, should be classed among those nomadic typographers who contributed so largely to the propagation of the art of printing.

La Vie de la Sainte Vierge Marie, en vingt gravures sur bois, par Albert Dürer, Nuremberg, anno 1511, décrite en vers Latins par Chelidonius.

Reproduction, procédé de P. W. van de Weijer, imprimeur lithographe, avec une introduction de Ch. Ruelens. In 4to, parchment wrapper. . (Utrecht, 1875.) The exact nature of the process by which this reproduction has been effected is a secret of the inventor, M. P. W. van de Weijer, who simply lets the public know that photography has nothing to do with it. It appears, indeed, to be far superior to any of the numerous photographic and heliographic processes now employed. The present volume, however, does not show all that can be done by its means, for it has evidently been produced from an inferior set of impressions of the prints in their second state, and of course is not better than its original. We have seen heliographic reproductions of some prints of this series superior in tone to the present; it is only fair to add, far higher in price. M. van de Weijer declares that wood engravings can be reproduced by this process without any injury being done to the originals. He is now preparing for publication Dürer's Great Passion, reproduced from the splendid series belonging to Dr. Straeter, of Aachen, whose prints cannot be said to have been injured, although they have apparently been subjected to intense pressure. The proofs of some of these we have seen, and they are certainly far superior to the very best heliographic reproductions that have yet appeared. The process being also less expensive, will eventually bring within the reach of the humblest purse copies of the finest woodcuts-certainly finer than late impressions that now sell for a much higher price-and inferior only to the best originals. We feel confident that the value of the latter will increase, notwithstanding Mr. Ruelens' opinion to the contrary; but a great fall in the value of copies and of inferior impressions is inevitable, and that this is really a gain from an art point of view there can be no doubt. Choice engravings of the great masters have risen so much in value of late years that they are now quite out of the reach of the general public, who are only able to gaze on them from time to time for a few minutes. They will now regain their legitimate influence. We venture to predict a great success for M. van de Weijer's process, which we should state is the result of over twenty years of patient study and experiments.

THE WATER-COLOUR INSTITUTE.

(Second Notice.)

EDITOR.

THE landscapes in this gallery are not of a very striking kind. Perhaps the two of highest quality are the large views by Mr. Hine of the verdurous downs of our southern coast-On the Downs, That aspect of Dorsetshire, and Near Lewes. softness combined with largeness and simplicity

which is so characteristic of this class of scenery

is finely rendered by the artist; the eye is not invited to pause at any particular point, but to spatiate and content itself. Mr. Skill gives, in his work On the Pincian, Morning, a true impression of the dome-thronged prospect of Rome from that famous site, paced with staid steps by Passionists and other ecclesiastics; his Mariannina is a pretty little figure of an Italian peasant-child. Llyn Idwal is well pictured by Mr. Wimperis: he makes the scene silent and solemn, without overstraining. In some other instances this painter takes off Cox too obviously: see especially Nos. 28 and 37. Mr. Edmund Warren has always been pre-eminent in the portraiture-for it is portraiture rather than portrayal of trees: he is an adept in their structure, their foliage, their light and shade. The examples in the present gallery are among his best: Near Mark Ash, New Forest; The Two Porters, Welbeck, near Sherwood (Famous Oaks of England); The Newton Forster Oak, Sherwood Forest (same series); Far from the busy Haunts of Mon (a deer-park). On the Way to Llyn Idwal shows Mr. Syer to be highly expert in the treatment of tumbling torrent

stream and lashed boulders. Mr. Oakes, in The Welsh Border, is scarcely up to his own standard: he gives us an extensive and varied landscape, with all sorts of material, including a couple of viaducts, but has painted it with a comparatively lax and perfunctory hand. San Biaggio, on the Lagune, Venice, by Mr. J. H. d'Egville, has truth in its moist high-tinted aspect. Another picture of atmospheric effect, but hardly sufficiently dense in tone, is the Thunder-cloud passing over the Sea, by Mr. Orrock. Arundel, by Mr. T. Collier, is more a sketch than a picture, but in a natural and genuine style.

A painting by Mr. Wolf of an indignant nested pigeon in a fir-tree, intruded upon by a brace of squirrels, Inquisitive Neighbours, is certain to be firstrate in the most important qualities; and seldom has this all-accomplished artist-naturalist surpassed the plumage-drawing which we find here. A little more of general tone, subduing the brightness of local colouring, would make this picture as pleasant as it is excellent. The only other animal subject calling for particular mention-and in this the interior counts for fully as much as the animals-is Temptation, by Mr. Morin, representing three young cats in a kitchen, greedy after fish. Mrs. Harrison (Quince), and Mrs. Coleman-Angell (Peach-blossom and Crackle Jar, and Azaleas) show forth well among the flower-painters. W. M. ROSSETTI.

ART SALES.

;

ON the 20th was sold at the Hôtel Drouot, a collection of modern paintings, among which were fifteen by Corot which fetched the following prices:-The Hut, 8,000 fr.; The Common, 5,900 fr.; The Downs, 4,900 fr.; The Avenue, 3,000 fr.; Marcoussy, 5,000 fr.; Pond of Villed'Avray, 6,700 fr.; Woman at the Well, 2,350 fr.; The Stream, 6,200 fr.; Corot's House, 9,000 fr. ; Borders of Lake Nemi, 4,000 fr.; Road to Church, 2,050 fr.; Environs of Givet, 1,730 fr.; and Magdalen, 1,200 fr. Chintreuil, Meadow near Millemont, 1,220 fr.; and the Orchard in Bloom, 3,800 fr.; J. M. Claude, Rotten Row, 3,000 fr. Courbet, Rock of Ornaens, 3,950 fr.; Forest in the Autumn, 780 fr.; The Damp Grotto, 1,120 fr.; Waterspout on the Coast, 1,250 fr.; Daubigny, The Meadows, 2,200 fr.; De la Croix, Education of Achilles, 3,050 fr.; Dupré, Marsh in the Pyrenees, 12,500 fr.; Feyen-Perrin, Winnowing Corn at Cancale, 1,700 fr.; Fisherman's Family, 1,700 fr.; J. Héreau, The Thames at Billingsgate, 1,900 fr., and Fishing at Cancale, 1,550 fr.; bert, The Virgin, Infant Saviour and St. John, 1,420 fr.; Jundt, The Islands of the Rhine, 4,500 fr.; Lansyer, Bay of Douarnenez, 1,050 fr.; Millet, The Gleaners, 12,100 fr.: De Neuville, Fight on a Railway, 11,500 fr.; Ribot, Girl and Dog, 3,800 fr.; The Old Fisherman, 1,420 fr.; The Young Cooks, 4,500 fr., and Poultry, 1,020 fr.; Ricard, Portrait of the Artist, 5,000 fr.; and of a woman, the same; A. Stevens, The Bath,7,805 fr. ; and The Coquette, 6,600 fr.; Tassaert, Girl with Rabbit, 5,900 fr.; Vollon, The Golden Dish, 5,500 fr. The sale produced 227,215 fr. (9,0887. 12s.).

teenth century, 6,100 fr.; rapier, same period, 2,800 fr.; wheel arquebuse, 19,500 fr. Fine maiolica plate by Xanto (1558) 16,100 fr. ; another with low foot, subject Lucretia, after a print of Marcantonio, 1,890 fr.; bottle with cylindrical neck, 7,500 fr.; oval dish, Limoges enamel, 1,350 fr.; two small plates, translucent enamels, 3,220 fr.; ancient silver patera, 5,650 fr.; renaissance jewel (group of "Charity") Italian, 7,305 fr.; Venus Victrix, Florentine bronze, 7,000 fr.; bronze medallion of Louis XII. and Anne de Bretagne, made 1499, a fine proof, 610 fr. Persian carpet, silk velvet of marvellous workmanship, from the Piot collection, 12,800 fr. A copy of La Fontaine's Fables, with illustrations by Oudry, 4 vols. folio, red morocco, given by Marie Antoinette, 2,000 fr. The sale produced 303,940 fr.

MESSRS. PUTTICK AND SIMPSON completed last week the sale of Messrs. Cramer and Co.'s musical copyrights and plates. Some of them sold as follows:-Cooper's Introduction to the Organ, 2341.; Barnett's Mountain Sylph, 165 gs.; Sir John Goss's Harmony and Thorough Bass, 451l.; Macfarren's Harmony, 1591.; Richter's Harmony and Counterpoint, 3331.; Cramer's Chamber Tries for Female Voices, 1,040., and Vocal Gems, 1,4897.; Sullivan's Light of the World, 2711; O ma Charmante, 500 gs.; Guinevere, 3034; Sailor's Grave, 971.; Little Maid of Arcadee, 275 gs.; The Young Mother, 100 gs.; and There sat a Bird, 1027. The total amount 13,000.

ON Friday and Saturday last (23rd and 24th) the dispersion of the Manley Hall collections was completed by the sale of the pictures. Never were Christie's rooms more crowded, even at the great china sales of last than on the year, present occasion, for the paintings were many of priceless value and familiar to us by exhibition and enMillais, Frith, Faed, and all the great artists of graving. There were the masterpieces of Turner, the modern school, many of which, as Mr. Woods observed, ought to have been secured for the National Galleries. The following are some of

the prices:-Egg, The Night before Naseby, 250gs Maclise, Departure of Bayard for the Wars, 405 gs.; Leslie, Scene from Henry VIII., 1,300 gs.: D. Roberts, Church of the Holy Nativity, Bethand sold in 1853 for 4837.), 1,350 gs.; and his lehem (formerly in the collection of Louis Philippe, Interior of the Cathedral of Seville, 1,800 gs.; A Water Fall, 1,400 gs.; R. Wilson, Lake Scene Collins, The Skittle Players, 2,300 gs.; Nasmyth, with Ruins, 700 gs.; Gallait, Columbus in Prison, Hum-pointment as President of the Council of Blood, 850 gs.; his Great Picture of Vargas, on his ap sold by Gambart for 1,500 gs., realised 2,550 gs; Egmont and Horn, 1,100 gs. A small replica of and a study for his celebrated picture of Counts Napoleon crossing the Alps, by Paul de la Roche,

THE Sainte-Seine collection, sold at the Hôtel Drouot on the 15th and following days, was most remarkable for the beauty and importance of the ancient arms, rivalling those of the Séchan sale (ACADEMY, March 6). There was no piece which came up to the famous Venetian poignard for which Baron A. de Rothschild gave 2,000l.; but there was a magnificent sword with iron hilt chased and damascened in gold, Italian work of the sixteenth century-it sold for 34,500 fr. (1,3801.); another, double-handed, of the same period, the favourite arm of the Swiss, 9,000 fr.; sword of the sixteenth century, chased and gilt, with dagger to accompany it, 16,600 fr.; another, with double guard and dagger, sixteenth century, 16,600 fr.; sword chased with birds in relief, six

8 inches by 6, 40 gs., and the President Durant's Death, from the Demidoff Collection, 625 gs. This completed the day's sale, which realised 32,190. The great prices were reserved for the last day:W. Field, A Grey Day on the Thames, a charming picture, 310 gs.; two pictures painted for the staircase at Manley Hall-Lago Maggiore, by Pyne, 370 gs., and Grand Canal, Venice, Wyld, 260 gs; O'Neill, The Anxious Mother, a replica, 160 gs.; Wallis, also a replica, 7 inches by 10, of the well-known picture of the Death of Chatterton, 260 gs.; Leslie, Willow, Willow, 10 inches by 18, one of his most poetical pictures, 220 gs.; Graham, A Spate in the Highlands, 10 inches by 14, 410gs.; Webster, Sickness and Health, 6 inches by 10, original study for the great picture, 230 gs.; Linnell, The Rustic Bridge, 600 gs.; Leslie, Elope ment, the girl on one side the river, the youth on the other, 1,100 gs.; Graham, Among the Hills, 1,550 gs., O'er Moor and Moss, 1,050 gs.: J. Linnell, Autumn Evening, 720 gs., The Midday Rest, a harvest, with a blaze of sun over the corn, 1,300 gs., and The Tramps, 1,060 gs.; Millais, A Swallow flying from the Golden Woods, 1,000 gs. ; Hook, The Lobster Catcher, 1,410 gs.; Ansdell,