of evidences, we must be content to refer the Swedenborgian immortality is guaranteed by the reader to the book itself. JAMES GAIRdner. CURRENT LITERATURE. Studies in Political Economy. By Anthony Musgrave, C.M.G., Governor of South Australia. (Henry S. King & Co.) If Governor Musgrave governs no more wisely than he writes, which we are far from supposing, South Australia would afford a signal example of the truth of the old saying, with how little wisdom the world is governed. The principal object of his Studies is to dispel an error in which he imagines that Mr. Mill and other economists have "floundered," namely, that money has no value and is a mere medium of exchange, and gold and silver become valueless as soon as converted into coin. Mr. Mill's exposition of the subject is that money has, like other commodities, a value dependent immediately on demand and supply, and remotely on its cost of production. How could sovereigns and shillings have different values, if neither had any value? Mr. Mill's theory is, not that coin has no value or exchangeability like other commodities, but that it has universal exchangeability which they have not, being legal tender and a thing which everyone will accept to any amount; on which account its value varies inversely as its quantity, which is not the case with other commodities-corn, for example. Governor Musgrave is not more happy in controverting Mr. Mill's doctrine that demand for commodities is not demand for labour; in other words, that the purchase of commodities is not equivalent to the payment of wages. If a man with 10,000l. a year spends that amount on commodities for himself, his horses, dogs, deer, pheasants, and other animals, he and his animals get commodities to the value of 10,000. If, on the contrary, he spends the same amount directly in wages, labourers get 10,000l. worth of commodities. Labourers, moreover, would often starve had they to wait for their wages until the things they help to produce are sold. And when they are sold, the capitalist does not spend the whole price upon labourers; he deducts profit, rent, and the cost of materials, implements, and animals. Very little labour is employed for the production of some commodities. The governor of a pastoral country ought to know that labourers may get very little out of the price of a flock of sheep. First Lessons in Business Matters. By a Banker's Daughter. (Macmillan.) This little book, which, as its title suggests, only deals with the most elementary parts of its subject, contains a considerable amount of information on various matters, and is likely to be useful to ladies who may be under the necessity of occasionally conducting their own business affairs. If all who need its first lesson (on the duty of writing plainly and concisely) would only buy the book and follow its advice, the authoress would have no reason to complain of want of success, and the world at large would receive no inconsiderable benefit. The Unseen Universe. (Macmillan.) This is an ingenious series of corollaries from hypotheses that occupy the extreme border of scientific en quiry, and so belongs to a kind of speculation of which most scientific enquirers are not unnaturally jealous, and it is rather doubtful whether the orthodox are yet reduced to be grateful for such a defence as can be constructed out of a combination of Origenism and Atomism. As far as one can make out, the authors (one of whom it is a temptation to identify with a certain professor of Moral Philosophy who has written upon Matter and Ethics before) wish us to believe that God the Father is required (in accordance with the doctrine of con tinuity) as the postulate of the Universe of Matter, and God the Son as the postulate of the Universe of Energy, and God the Spirit as the postulate of the Universe of Life; and that if we prefer not to speculate on the Deity, at any rate a rather interchange of energy between the Visible and Invisible universe, which seems to be implied in the doctrine that the history of the universe, or at least of the solar system, has been a long process of aggregation of mass and dissipation of energy. It is rather odd that there are people who think that speculations of this kind can make religion more stable than it is made already by the experience of saints, the habitual temper of comprehensive philosophers, and the desires of common people. are Songs of Two Worlds. By a New Writer. Third Series. (Smith, Elder & Co.) The concluding series of this popular work is quite worthy of its predecessors, and it is pleasant to find that the author has already begun to reconsider his intention of writing, or at any rate printing, no more poetry. "The Food of Song" and "The Birth of Verse" are a very clear and delightful account of the author's literary method, a subject on which some further light is thrown in the poem headed "From Hades," where we have refined and fanciful interpretations of the legends of Actaeon, of Orpheus, and Endymion. Actaeon is the type of souls overmastered by this passion; Orpheus, of genius willingly led captive of the commonplace through his affections (which in the "Home Altar" treated as the consecration of life); Endymion, of those whose youth is well lost in dreams too fair to be realised. From "A Dialogue" between the author and his soul, we learn that, like the writer of the Iliad, he regards the body as the true self. Of the other poems, the most important is "Evensong," where the writer watches the sunset and listens to the music from a church where evening service is going on, while he goes over most of the ground traversed in Tennyson's "Two Voices," with much the same result. At any rate, he reaches no conviction too strong to be shaken by the death of an amanuensis. "Frederic" (the amanuensis in question) and "At Chambers" are both very pretty faintly Heinesque ballads on Street Children" only incidents of London life. reminds us of Matthew Arnold by the metre. "The Enigma" reproduces Mr. Rossetti's "Jenny," in what some may call a chastened, others a washed-out version. In the same way it may be asked whether the noble and felicitous diction of the "Ode to New Rome" embodies the common places of amiable Philistinism as the dictates of a generous and temperate philosophy. It is fair to warn the fastidious that both the Albert Memorial at Kensington, and the character of the late Prince Consort arouse the enthusiasm of the author. The Pinetum: being a Synopsis of all the Coniferous Plants at present known. By George Gordon, A.L.S. Second Edition. (H. G. Bohn.) The first edition of this book was published in 1858, and has for some time been unprocurable. It will no doubt be found no less useful than its predecessor to persons who are interested in the cultivation of Coniferae, but who not being professed botanists do not possess the technical books which treat of these plants. Mr. Gordon's strong point is his practical empirical knowledge of the plants. For the technical matter which he has introduced The present book is therefore in no sense a fresh he has apparently had recourse to other writers. working up of the subject from a scientific point of view. That is a desideratum of which the need is still unsatisfied. But those for whose use the book is intended will find it very fairly answer their needs, and, at any rate for the present, a not untrustworthy-though perhaps not wholly satisfactory-guide. With so good an index it seems almost a pity to have abandoned any approach to a scientific arrangement of the genera for one so purely arbitrary as the alphabetical. Beyond this we have nothing to say, except to put in a plea that so commonly adopted Arthrotaxis. for Don's original spelling Athrotaxis, instead of butions to Dante literature for which he is already famous, Sei Cento Lezioni della Divina Commedia (Williams and Norgate). This is meant as a supplement to Lord Vernon's Dante, which reprinted the text of the four earliest editions of Dante, those of Foligno, Jesi, and Mantua, published in 1472, and also a Neapolitan edition without date. There is, however, another Neapolitan edition of the date of 1477. This Dr. Barlow first intended to reprint entire, but found that it contained so many typographical errors that he changed his intention, and has published instead a selection of some 600 readings, which are compared with the corresponding readings of the four texts in the Vernon Dante. Generally speaking there is a strong resemblance between the Neapolitan text of 1477 and that of Foligno. IN reprinting in facsimile Gilbert Burnet's Some Passages of the Life and Death of... John Earl of Rochester (Elliot Stock), in other words Burnet's account of the arguments by which he converted that witty reprobate on his death-bed to an acknowledgment of the truth of Christian morality, Lord Ronald Gower expresses a hope that the book may be a warning to those whose lives in the reign of Victoria resemble his "in a course of selfish and wicked indulgence." It is sincerely to be hoped that it may be so, but it may be doubted whether many will "have their eyes opened to the reckless folly of leading what is called a 'fast life," by a book the antique form and type of which must be rather repulsive to eyes familiar only with the railway novel of the present age, or by arguments which breathe the spirit of the seventeenth rather than of the nineteenth century. Selections from "Odds and Ends;" a MS. Magazine issued by the St. Paul's Literary and Educational Society, and edited by George Milner. Vol. I. (Manchester: printed for the Society.) This is the title of a small privately printed book, forming a memorial of the good work a circumstances. literary coterie may effect under not very promising St. Paul's is situated in a poor and densely-populated part of Manchester, and has been a centre of religious and intellectual life. With between two and three thousand scholars attending its Sunday schools, with charitable and provident societies in abundance, it has also its literary clubs and libraries. The papers and lectures read in a single session are numerous enough to set up half-a-dozen societies. It was founded in 1843, and has 201 members, of whom 45 are women. The MS. magazine has been in progress since 1855, and these selections show that no inconsiderable amount of literary power has been developed among its members. There are some good local word-portraits, and some very graceful verses by the editor. Essays for Englishwomen and Law Students. A Profitable Book upon Domestic Law. By C. J. Bunyon, M.A., Barrister-at-Law. (Longmans.) The author, who is well known as a serious writer on the law of life insurance, has here undertaken to give "his fair friends," to whom he dedicates this little work, "such a modicum of law as may be profitable to them, or they may wish to know;" and he has done so in a very amusing style, "ful of old saws and modern instances." He has a chapter on every subject which can arise in nonmercantile and non-professional life, and each is just as entertaining as a chapter in a novel, besides giving thoroughly sound instruction. We can confidently recommend it to those for whom it is intended. Though a man should not be his own lawyer, a man-or a woman either should not be without the elementary notions on which the transactions of every-day life depend. It has been known for some time among Mr. Tennyson's friends that he considers much of the "Doubtful Play" of Edward III. to be Shakspere's. He has now, it seems, given leave to a Mr. Alexander Teetgen, of Lucerne, to print this DR. BARLOW has added another to those contri- opinion-"I have no doubt a good deal of it is Franco-Allemande, by M. A. Sorel, attaché in received contributions from the Duke of Westminster, the Archbishop of Canterbury, the Rev. Septimus Hansard, the promoter of the movement, Mr. George Dixon, M.P., and others. We wish the movement full success. THE government of Peru has added a faculty of political and administrative science to the course of studies at the University of San Marcos. M. Pradier-Fodere, of Paris, has been charged with the organisation and direction of this school for the education of diplomats, consuls and public servants. BACON'S Essays have been translated into Bengali by Dharmadás Adhikári. Shakspere's;" and Mr. Teetgen has published the Laureate's words in a pamphlet, unfortunately as silly and bombastical as anything we ever saw. The title of this production is "Shakespeare's 'King Edward the Third,' absurdly called, and scandalously treated as a 'Doubtful Play;' an Indignation pamphlet; together with an Essay on the Poetry of the Future, by Alexander Teetgen. Self-justified Shakespeare. "The Subtlest of Authors.'" (Williams & Norgate.) Having never seen the discussions on the authenticity of Edward III. in the ACADEMY of 1874 and other journals and tracts, knowing nothing of the English reprints of it, mis-stating facts about Professor Delius's careful edition of the play, Mr. Teetgen first shows his carelessness and ignorance. He then gives specimens of his judgment, by declaring that the unquestionably spurious Birth of (ie., two flowing chains of prose and verse, emanating quarto, illustrated by the students of the Calcutta Merlin and London Prodigal are, in his belief, by Shakspere, in, at least, great part; that in "Luce" in the London Prodigal we have the sublimity of sweetness among Shakspere's women (!); and that the only man who since Shakspere's time has approached his "ring," "is Emerson, our only bard." Further, as one of his specimens of the poetry of the future, whose subject is Transcendentalism, which is "The Missing Rib in Shakespeare," Mr. Teetgen gives us : 46 'If not, come, Autumn, with thy charms, He further informs us that "there is no sign of Lotos Leaves. (Chatto & Windus.) The gorgeous binding and good print of this volume are its chief attractions. It is said to be written by members of the Lotos Club, and if that means a club for doing nothing, we cannot wonder at the production. The writers number among them Wilkie Collins, Mark Twain, Whitelaw Reid, John Hay, Isaac Bromley, and others. The book consists chiefly of adventures, stories, and poems. The adventures are weak, the stories are weaker, the poems are weakest; but it will look well on drawing-room tables, and is the sort of book which became popular about fifty years ago as part of the furniture of a well-arranged sitting-room. EDITOR. NOTES AND NEWS. WE understand that The Life and Letters of Lord Macaulay, a work which has long been in preparation by his nephew, Mr. G. O. Trevelyan, M.P. for the Hawick District of Burghs, is now in the printer's hands, and will be published in the next publishing season. ONE of the best generals of the Second Empire, Marshal Randon, left a series of Memoirs, the first volume of which has just been published in Paris. They are valueless from a political point of view, but throw great light on the history of Algeria from 1852 to 1857. MESSRS. PLON are about to publish a work of the highest interest for students of politics and diplomacy—L'Histoire diplomatique de la Guerre WALT WHITMAN writes to a correspondent :- the real and ideal), it will embody much that I had THE Sunday Shakspere Society is to wind up A MEETING is announced to take place at Willis's Rooms on Monday, June 7. at 1.30 P.M., in favour of the institution of a Chair in one of the Universities of Scotland for the cultivation of the various branches of the Celtic Languages. The Marquis of Huntly is to preside on the occasion, and many noblemen and gentlemen distinguished in literature and art have signified their intention to be present. Dr. Blackie, Professor of Greek in the University of Edinburgh, is also expected to be present to advocate the claims of the aboriginal inhabitants of the British Isles, for the preservation of the ancient vernacular. AMONG the suggestions made to the authorities in reference to the Arctic Expedition was one from the Vegetarian Society, pointing out the opportunity which it afforded of making observations in the matter of diet, and for disposing of the "very popular fallacy that a flesh or animal fat diet is largely essential to the sustenance of human life in Arctic regions." In reply, their Lordships regret that they cannot adopt the suggestion. THE last number of the Bibliotheca Sacra contains a paper, by the Rev. Selah Merril, on "Assyrian and Babylonian Monuments in America." and smaller relics, to panel or wainscot a wall 270 There are "slabs enough, to say nothing of bricks feet in continuous length, and the height of this wainscotting would be, for almost the entire distance, nearly 8 feet." Particulars are given of localities where these relics have been deposited. A PUBLIC meeting of the ratepayers of Bethnal expressed in the mode prescribed by the Free BABÚ RAJENDRALALA MITRA's long-expected School of Art, under the superintendence of Mr. MR. SKEAT has begun to print the Notes to MISS EVA C. GORDON, of Pixholme, is translating for the Chaucer Society Dr. P. Lindner's "Alliteration in Chaucer." Mr. Henry essay on Cromie's "Ryme-Index to the Ellesmere MS. of the Canterbury Tales" for the same society is printed as far as "oore." THE poet Skelton's Englishing of Poggins's translation of the History of Diodorus Siculus is being copied for the Early English Text Society, from the unique MS. in the Library of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, by Mr. Fowler, Master of the King's College Choristers' School. THE REV. G. WHEELWRIGHT, of Crowhurst, East Grinstead, the sub-editor of the F words for the Philological Society's proposed English Dictionary, has put forth an "appeal to the English-speaking public on behalf of a new English dictionary." It contains a quarto sheet of specimens of his work, a statement of what has been done for the Dictionary since 1860, and an appeal for further help. The real want is a trained philologist, with a thousand a year of his own, and a resolve to etymologies, &c., already prepared by the subwork ten or twelve hours a day at revising the editors, and at getting the rest of the material into order. But unluckily no English Littré has yet turned up; and the Oxford Press cannot be convinced that the work when finished will sell enough to pay them for the outlay necessary to finish it. About half the work is done. The Rev. J. E. B. Mayor suggests the formation of a separate Dictionary Society to take up the book. But who is to be the working man of the new society? Latin to the Philological Society, notes "that not PROFESSOR WAGNER, in his late Report on a single contribution to Latin scholarship has been made by the French in 1874: many schoolbooks have been published, but what we have seen did not appear to be very scholarly. No independent French work, that can be called an actual contribution to Latin philology, has lately come to our knowledge. The Italians do not seem to produce anything important in the same branch of study, nor do the Spanish or Portuguese. Among the smaller nations, the Danes have produced respectable Latin scholars, notably Madvig. The Germans, the English, and the Danes-that is, the Teutonic race-are doing the honours of Latin philology." As we have before briefly announced, Dr. Giuseppe Pitre, of Palermo, has recently published in that city a very rich collection of Sicilian popular tales. It contains upwards of 400 "popular traditions," and occupies no fewer than four volumes of the extremely valuable "Biblioteca delle Tradizioni Popolari Siciliane," of which he is the editor. The work is one of which Sicily may justly be proud, and the highest praise is due to Dr. Pitrè for the great pains he has taken in collecting the stories it contains, the conscientious accuracy with which the exact words of the storytellers have been reported, and the scholarlike manner in which he has handled his vast mass of materials. Thoroughly well acquainted with what has been done in other countries, he has known how to turn to the best account the resources of his own, and he has conferred a boon on foreign readers for which they may well be grateful to him, by presenting them with a copious Glossary and a Grammatica del Dialetto e delle Parlate Siciliane. We learn from the Pall Mall Gazette that at the request of Professors Ranke and Giesebrecht, the Prussian Lieutenant-General von Troscki has undertaken to write the history of the military sciences for the great work originated by King Maximilian II. of Bavaria, The History of the Sciences in Germany. IN one of Giusti's most touching poems the poet tells how, as he hears the sweet strains of Mozart rising into the air from a military band composed of hated Austrians, his mind projected itself into the future and brought vividly before him the day when the Austrian should have left Italy free, and A very beautiful fragment of sculpture was ex- AMONG the questions, historical and literary, entire collection of documents will embrace ten volumes. La Guerra e la sua Storia, by Nicola Marselli Milano: Treves), is the first of three volumes on the history of war. In an interesting chapter called "La Societa Civile" the author combats against national armies, and in the third book, the arguments used by the old military school "L'Esercito," he speaks of the necessity of compulsory military service. THE Hanseatic Historical Association, which held its last annual meeting at Hamburg from May 17-19, has announced that it will meet in 1876 at Cologne, where the members are to assemble in the old Hanse Hall, in which, in the year 1367, the then powerful Hansers drew up the terms of their celebrated Confederation against Valdemar Atterdag, of Denmark. The result of that day's conference was calamitous to the merry monarch. After returning an offensive answer to the declaration of war from the seventy-seven Confederate towns, and telling the herald who brought it to go back to the "seven und seventigh Gensen? (ie. Geese, in allusion to the name "Hanser," which was applied to a barn-door fowl), who had sent him, and let them know he had set up a in readiness for their coming-he was defeated by the Leaguers, and ultimately forced to take to when his countrymen would hasten to embrace have been sent from every county and every State golden goose over his prison-tower at Vordingborg as brothers those whom she loathed as oppressors. Politically, as we all know, the prediction was realised when the King of Italy met the Emperor of Austria at Venice. Still more truly is it being realised every day by the scientific men of Italy, always prompt to receive new ideas from whatever country they may come, and to welcome the scholars who have laboured beyond the Alps. No narrow patriotism makes it hard for them to give ear to counsel conveyed in a foreign tongue. Only last month Professor Max Müller received a hearty welcome at Florence, and the readers of the Rivista Europea for the present month will be able to see with what generous acknowledgment of his merits he was greeted by Professor de Gubernatis, in a lecture delivered on April 3 in the Circolo Filologico at Florence, in which he showed something of his own familiarity with the science of Comparative Mythology, and declared himself prepared to fight against all assailants under Pro fessor Max Müller's banner. of the Union in such numbers, that the New York Herald thinks it advisable to inform intend- also given to a paper printed in Charlotte as late as 1850. flight and leave his kingdom at their mercy. AN important addition is said to have been made to German incunabula by the discovery in the sacristy of the parish church of Kleinbautzen, in Saxony, of an Old Testament printed by Gutenberg. It had been presented to the church in 1677, by the Kammerjunker Heinrich von Nostiz Malschwitz, but had in the course of time been thrown aside and lost sight of, until a recent clearing away of rubbish brought it to light from the midst of the other books by which it had been concealed. According to German papers, this specimen of the firstfruits of printing has been bought by one of our own countrymen for 8,850 marks. THE INDIA MUSEUM. THE first field meeting of the Woolhope Naturalists' Club was held on the 20th inst. at Caerleon-upon-Usk, under the presidency of the Rev. Charles J. Robinson. The day was almost wholly devoted to the examination of the important Roman remains with which the local museum is filled, and but scanty attention was paid either to King Arthur or to S. Dubritius, whose memorials are certainly of a less substantial character. It will be remembered that Caerleon cognized organ of the Church Homiletical Society, London to hear addresses and discuss questions (Castrum legionis) was occupied by the second Augustan legion, that it ranked as a Roman colony, and by its name of Isca Silurum was recognised as the chief city of the Silurians. But few persons are aware how extensive are the traces of Roman occupation throughout the immediate neighbourhood. The site of the amphitheatre may be plainly discerned, and the adjacent ground is still called "Bear House Field; " on the hill-side the plough and the spade are continually exhuming urns, coffins, and sepulchral slabs, and in the recent restoration of the church a vast mass of Roman masonry was discovered at its base. The contents of the museum, drawn chiefly from Caerleon and Caerwent, are extremely interesting. Special notice was directed to an inscription which recorded the building of certain "centurias" for the soldiers. Mr. J. E. Lee (the author of Isca Silurum) suggests that this word means "barracks," and it is certainly difficult to see what other interpretation can be put upon it, though dictionaries are silent as to such a use of the word. On two inscriptions the name of Geta has been mutilated or partially effaced, affording strange contemporary evidence of the unpopularity of the son of Severus. MESSRS. HODDER AND STOUGHTON will publish on July 1 the first number of the Clergyman's Magazine, a periodical intended to provide for the want experienced in the present day by many of the clergy in the shape of a magazine which will at once be of use to them in relation to their manifold work in the pulpit, the study, and the parish. The Clergyman's Magazine will be the reof Canterbury and York, several of the Bishops, and its contributors will include the Archbishops besides a large number of other dignitaries, and many eminent clergymen. THREE of the monks of the Monastero della Trinita di Cava at Naples have brought out the two first volumes of a Codex diplomaticus Cavensis. (Napoli: Hoepli, 1873, 1875.) This is to contain all the documents preserved in the Archives of the Monastery of Cava. These archives, after those of the Vatican and of Montecassino, are the richest of all Italy in important documents relating to the history of the Middle Ages. The first of the two volumes now published contains 211 parchments, a Synopsis, a chronological table of the Princes of Salerno from 840 to 1083, and an appendix in which there is a description of a biblical manuscript of the sixth century. The second volume contains 247 parchments, a Monitum, and the description of two Codices. Each volume contains a chronological index of the parchments, and an alphabetical index of the names occurring in them, together with some facsimiles. Most of these documents relate only to the history of the Princes of Salerno, but they throw much light on the institutions and customs of the Middle Ages. The THOSE persons who attended, or took interest in the meeting of Orientalists held in London during the past autumn will, doubtless, remember the part reading of an elaborate paper prepared by Dr. Forbes Watson, official reporter on the products of India, advocating the establishment of an Indian Institute in connexion with the museum under his charge. The occasion thus chosen for mooting the proposal was unfortunate. A number of learned Orientalists had been drawn together to but which would enable them to ventilate the which were, to them, not only of ordinary interest, learning they had acquired, and the theories they had formed throughout a lifetime of labour and perseverance. Men mostly of middle or advanced age, and, in some instances, of European repute, they could hardly be expected to lend their sympathies to a case which, however good and well put, was addressed rather to Her Majesty's Government in England than to an International Congress; and it is not surprising that the paper met with comparatively meagre consideration, and made way for more pressing and pertinent subjects. Moreover, it is only Englishmen who can properly understand the spirit which actuates their governing financiers in recommending for scientific objects that kind of State support which, according to the reported speech of an eminent ex-minister at the anniversary dinner of the Royal Geographical Society on Monday last, "makes no difference in the annual balance-sheet." Were foreigners consulted upon these points, there is but little doubt of the nature of their decision; and if such decision were adopted, it is probable that in addition to possessing Dr. Forbes Watson's proposed institute and museum, London would be embellished by a new street opening out St. Paul's to the river, and boast of a subsidised national drama, purified and restored under the aegis of the Education Department. But although Dr. Forbes Watson's project has not been definitively accepted, the views which he has expressed with so much force and intelligence, and illustrated by careful details resulting from long experience, cannot fail to command attention in giving practical effect to the disposition, in any form, of an Indian Museum. Our business is to see what has been done to meet the exigency of the hour, now that the Eastern galleries of the International Exhibition have been selected as the fittest place to receive for the nonce the collections transferred from the upper rooms of the India Office. The India Museum in its new habitat was visited by a limited number of persons on Monday afternoon, was open to a very large number at the hospitable invitation of the President of the Institution of Civil Engineers and Mrs. Harrison on Tuesday evening, and will be available as a public resort on the 1st proximo. Those who came to the conversazione passed first through the French Annexe, most elegantly fitted up for the occasion with carpet hangings and a profusion of charming flowers; and, ascending the staircase at the further end, entered the upper gallery. Appropriated to the Museum are an upper and a lower gallery, each divided into five rooms or sections. The contents of the former, numbered from XX. to XVI. respectively (the higher figure being that nearest the hall of entrance), are classified under heads to which we shall make distinct reference. that the pottery, glass, coins, carnelians, agates, No. XIX. has more to exhibit of the rich "Yar- A Nos. XVIII., XVII., and XVI. are more thoroughly Indian collections; and notwithstanding that the pottery and paintings, the gold and silver, and brass and copper work, the carvings in ivory and sandal wood, the kimkhwab, silks and shawls, have long become familiar to the British sight-seer, the specimens now shown are sufficiently artistic and beautiful to call for attention and approval. The carpets are hung on the walls of the rooms generally, commencing from the lower entrance. Among them are some fine Indian productions; but the chief attraction is to the Persian samples which appear more numerous. To Mr. Vincent Robinson, owner of part of the collection, the Museum is indebted for a geographical arrangement of these. The manufactures of Senna and Persian Kurdistan, Hamadan, Mark-had, Herat and Karman may be recognised by the connoisNo. XX., representing "Archaeology, Sculp-derived might be attached to each with advanseur; but a clear specification of locality whence of Western Persia. We can add little more than a bare notice of the sections in the Lower Gallery. Nos. XI. and XII. contain the zoological collections, which may be pronounced a sure success, both in respect of the scientific and sporting world as of mere pleasure-seeking visitors, men, women, or children. No. XIII., "Departmental Offices," is explained by its title; No. XIV. is assigned to "Mineralogy, Geology, and Physical Geography;" and No. XV. to "Vegetable Products." The Queensland Annexe, entered from No. XIV., is to be regarded, we are told, "as a commencement of a collection which will be largely increased as soon as the proposed and much-wanted Colonial Museum comes into existence." ture, and Architecture," is of mark and interest. In such good keeping as that of Dr. Forbes the India Museum should thrive in almost any lo- VI. Crete (continued). OUR object now was to re-cross the island on the visit a place which is known in all the neighbour- Notwithstanding the modern name, and the opinion of some scholars in favour of this place, there is no reason for supposing that this was the original Cretan labyrinth. That place was in all probability a mythical conception, like the stories attached to it, though, like many other Greek legends, it may have been attached to some geographical feature, such as a cavern; and that such subterranea were associated with the early history of the country is rendered probable by the Greek word for a refuge, pysyror, which seems to mean "a Cretan hiding-place." But all Greek writers localise the story at Cnossus, besides which the coins of that place, of which I obtained two in the island, bear as their emblem an idealised representation of the Labyrinth. Claudian indeed (Sext. Cons. Hon. 634) speaks of semiferi Gortynia tecta juvenci, by which epithet perhaps he simply means Cretan;" but it is quite conceivable that when Gortyna became the rival of Cnossus, the inhabitants borrowed the legend, and adopted this place as their labyrinth from its singular correspondence to the traditional idea, and that hence the legend became naturalised here. 66 Ascending the hillside, we crossed a plateau, the ground beneath which is mined by the Labyrinth, and at one point Captain George pointed out to us the position of the Refectory underground. Higher up we obtained a view of all the snowy mountains of Crete together, comprising the Dictaean mountains, Ida, Kedros, and the White Mountains. I have mentioned that Ida is now called Psilorites; the original name, however, still survives in Neda (riv "Inv), as a small elevated plain is called which is deeply sunk amid the higher summits. The Captain now parted from us, and we continued to mount over stony barren mountains and clayey valleys, in which a few oleanders were growing, until we took leave of the southern sea, and once more crossed the ridge of the island, near which is the small village of Hagia Barbara. The road which descends from hence to Hagios Thomas is excessively bad, in addition to which our guide lost his way. We observed here what had struck us also on the west side of Ida, that the tracks in the northern part of Crete are far worse than those to the south, probably owing to the greater amount of soft soil. This renders travelling a difficult matter during or after bad weather: on our journey to Arkadi our baggage-horse once sank into the mud, and was with difficulty extricated, and on this occasion nothing but extraordinary surefootedness prevented it from falling. The absence of all traffic and communication, here and everywhere, was painfully remarkable. Hagios Thomas occupies an elevated position just below a plateau of soft limestone rock of a light grey colour, which falls to the village in precipices of 40 or 50 feet high; from the face of these huge blocks have fallen away, and lie detached close beneath. In several of these, and also in the face of the cliff, very curious ancient rocktombs have been excavated, which reminded my companion of those of Petra, and are more akin to the Lycian sepulchres than to anything that is found in Greece Proper. One block has three of these in various parts of it, and the effect they produce is strange, from their lying out of the perpendicular. They are all of the same shape, being entered by a small square-headed doorway, and are square within, with arched recesses surmounted by niches on three sides; the floor is also hollowed out in parts into shallow chambers. Nothing is known as to the ancient city that occupied this site, but, whatever its name, it was probably Roman, for only Roman coins were brought to me by the people of the village, one of them being of the Emperor Gordian. Descending again from hence by an intricate path, and passing at intervals through groves of chestnuts not yet in leaf, about nightfall we arrive at Venerato, a name which sounds as if it dated from Venetian times. On the way we obtained fine views of Mount Iuktas, which seems to have been regarded as the burial-place of Zeus, for the neighbouring villagers, hardly otherwise than through an ancient tradition, give the name of "the Sepulchre of Zeus" (Tou Aids To prnutior) to a ruin on its crest, and there is ample evidence that a reputed tomb of the god was shown in Crete even later than the time of Constantine. It rises to the height of 2,700 feet, on the opposite side of a wide and deep valley towards the east, and bears on its summit a white chapel of St. John the Baptist, while the village of Khanî Castelli lies at its base; to the north the sea appears, with the island of Dia. In this connexion it is worthy of remark that the modern Cretans make use of the invocation Zove Os, and on the sides of Parnassus the exclamation "God of Crete" is used to express incredulity, which seems exactly to correspond to a statement of Origen, who said that the early Christians were accused of ridiculing the worshippers of Zeus, because the burial-place of the god was shown in Crete. The village of Venerato, which is situated in a commanding position on the edge of a cliff overhanging a gorge, is in a more pitiable state of ruin than almost any we had seen. The miserable room in which we passed the night was covered with mould, and anything but water-tight. This place was the scene of a horrible massacre at the commencement of the Greek War of Independence in 1821, when the Moslems, with the intention of intimidating the Christian population, issued from the neigh bouring town of Megalo-castron, and massacred all the males whom they found in this and the surrounding villages. To that town we descended the next morning in four hours, having timed our journey well, for not long after our arrival the smoke of the steamer by which we were to depart was in sight on the horizon. In all these parts Megalo-castron is familiarly known as The Castron, which name in Albania we had found to be given to Argyro-castron; and similarly throughout the Aegean and in European Turkey Constantinople is spoken of as The City (ó). A few persons of the upper class prefer to call it Heracleion, using the name of the ancient city which occupied the site; this was the port of Cnossus, and the ruins of that ancient capital-if so they can be called, for nothing but a single wall remains are to be seen at an hour's distance to the south, in a position remarkable neither for strength nor beauty. The same thing may be said of the two other principal Cretan cities, Cydonia and Gortyna. As to the Venetian name of Candia, by which Megalo-castron is better known-it is never heard now in Crete, and as a name for the island it never was used at all. The fame of the place in history mainly depends on the gallant defence against the Turks by the Venetians under Morosini, ending in a capitulation in 1669. It is still surrounded by the massive Venetian walls, and in approaching from the land side a deep moat has to be crossed, and a winding passage traversed, before you arrive at the gateway. Outside the gateway a number of lepers were seated on the ground to beg for alms. This disease is a terrible scourge in parts of Crete, and since it is regarded as contagious, as soon as the first sign of it appears on the body, the unfortunate patient is excluded from the towns. Consequently, there is a lepers' village near Megalo-castron, and we passed a similar one not far from the gates of Retimo. It affects especially the hands and feet, the nose and eyes: one woman, who came close to me to beg, had her hand sadly disfigured, and a painful look about the eyes. This disease is different from what we conceive the ancient leprosy to have been. Within the walls everything presented the appearance of an ordinary Turkish town, with bazaars and veiled women; though the latter were not necessarily Mahometan, for here, as in one or two other towns in Turkey, the Christian women have adopted the Moslem costume. It is a large place, containing from 15,000 to 18,000 inhabitants, but the buildings are poor and straggling. The port, which is enclosed, like that of Khanea, by Venetian moles, lies on the eastern side, and faces east, like that at Retimo. Over a tower, which commands its entrance from the sea, the lion of St. Mark may be seen in two places, and on the land side, partly entire, and partly in ruins, stand the lofty arched roofs of the docks or sheds of the Venetian galleys. During the few hours of our stay we were kindly entertained by our Vice-Consul, Mr. Lysimachus Calocherino, a man of great information about the country, and reputed to be the wealthiest man in Crete, his father having been a long-headed person, and having made much money in the island. Like Mr. Triphylli, of Retimo, he came originally from Cerigo. From him I learnt that parts of the poem of Erotocritos, the most famous work that has been written in the Cretan dialect, are still sung by the peasants, but mainly in the eastern districts, of which its author, Cornaros, was a native. He estimated the entire population of Crete as from 280,000 to 300,000 souls. As we leave Megalo-castron, it looks fine from the sea, with its minarets and walls, backed by the striking ridge of Mount Iuktas, which is here seen in profile. After nightfall, as we passed along the shore, the views of Mount Ida were fine in the brilliant moonlight, and in the morning we found ourselves once more off Khanea, from whence the White Mountains were seen superbly clear, with shapes more sharply cut and bolder outlines than those of any other of the Cretan ranges. We had time to land and visit the Venetian docks, which resemble those of Megalo-castron, and have a place for drawing up the galleys; after which we walked round the eastern portion of the walls outside, where the breach was pointed out to us which had been made by the Turkish cannon. After a visit to the Consul, Mr. Sandwith, and our other friends, we embarked again, and arrived the next morning at Syra. A journey in Crete, such as I have described, leaves a profoundly melancholy impression on the mind. Everywhere there was poverty, which in some cases bordered on destitution. It was painful even to feel that we ourselves had enough to eat, when others had so little; and, if we had any compassion to spare from human beings, the poor starved dogs were indeed a spectacle to move it. We were assured, indeed, by Mr. Sandwith, who has done everything in his power to alleviate the distress, that we saw it at its very worst, and that there was a prospect of a good harvest, which would mitigate the suffering. This, we may hope, has been the case, but still the root of the evil lies deeper. There is a widespread feeling among the people, that before ten years are over they will be again in insurrection, and for this reason they do not care to repair their dwellings. Now those who know the Cretans best affirm that, when unmolested, they are a quiet, peace-loving people, and certainly all that we saw tended to confirm this. The bad reputation of their forefathers for being "liars, evil beasts, &c.," does not apply to the present population, and we were much struck by the few complaints we heard, and the absence of begging. The bearing of the people generally in these hard times was most manly. It must have required a large amount of misrule, neglect, and oppression to bring such a people to such a condition. All the necessaries of life, except wine, are excessively dear, and notwithstanding the fertility of the soil, the corn that is grown does not suffice for the consumption of the island. The tithe is the only regular impost, but the manner in which this is farmed greatly increases its oppressiveness, and the price of articles is seriously raised in the towns by the taxes or licences of shops, which in some cases are extremely heavy. Quite lately great injury has been caused by the introduction of a debased coinage, first by the government, and subsequently by merchants, in consequence of which the people are unwilling to receive the money. But causes such as these would have been quite inadequate to produce such deep-seated alienation, apart from the wholesale barbarities perpetrated by Omer Pasha's troops, which, were they not thoroughly well attested (see Revue des Deux Mondes, vol. lxxiv. p. 896), would be quite incredible. The Cretans are usually about or a little above the middle height, though some are very tall and well-grown men. With few exceptions, they have dark hair and eyes, oval faces with rather a pointed chin, full cheeks, and noses somewhat aquiline and sometimes even hooked: the expression is generally good humoured and intelligent. The men's dress is quite different from what is found elsewhere in Greece and Turkey, consisting of a long boot reaching above the calf, blue baggy trousers gathered in at the knee, a red sash, white shirt, blue waistcoat, corresponding to the trousers, and a jacket; over which is worn a short capote, usually white, with a hood to cover the head, though sometimes a skull-cap is seen. Of these, the boots and cloak seem to have come down from classical times, the former being mentioned by Galen, who thinks their use was suggested by the ruggedness of the Cretan mountains, the latter by Aristophanes (Thesm. 730), who calls it the KonTikóv. To classical students the interest of the island consists, not in any important historical events of which it was the scene, but in the peculiarity of its institutions, and in its having been the principal stepping-stone by which Phoenician civilisation passed into Greece. H. F. TOZER. |