WINSTON'S

CUMULATIVE

LOOSE-LEAF

ENCYCLOPEDIA

A COMPREHENSIVE

REFERENCE BOOK

"

Editor-in-Chief

CHARLES MORRIS
Litterateur, Historian and Encyclopedist
Author of " Civilization, an Historical Review of Its
Element,' "The Aryan Race," "Manual of Classical
Literature," "Man and His Ancestors," "Famous Men
and Great Events of the Nineteenth Century," and
numerous other works. Editor of "Twentieth Cen-
tury Encyclopedia," "Biographical Dictionary."
"Famous Orators of the World,' Half Hours with
the Best American Authors," etc., etc. Member of
the "Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia,"
"Geographical Society of Philadelphia," "Natural His-
tory Society," and "Society for Physical Research."
ASSISTED BY-

A CORPS OF CONTRIBUTORS
Authorities on Special Subjects

In Ten Volumes

ILLUSTRATED WITH PHOTOGRAPHS, MAPS, DRAWINGS AND
COLOR PLATES; INCLUDING SEVEN COLOR PLATES FROM
THE J. L. G. FERRIS COLLECTION OF AMERICAN HISTORICAL
PAINTINGS, BY SPECIAL PERMISSION OF THE ARTIST

THE JOHN C. WINSTON COMPANY

CHICAGO

PHILADELPHIA

TORONTO

COPYRIGHT 1921, BY
THE JOHN C. WINSTON Co.
Copyright 1912-13-14-15-16-17-18-19-20

Binder protected under

UNITED STATES PATENT RIGHTS OF
AUGUST 27, 1918

DOMINION OF CANADA PATENT RIGHTS OF

KEY TO PRONUNCIATION

Three methods are used to indicate the pronunciation of the words forming the headings of the separate articles:

(1) By dividing the word into syllables, and indicating the syllable or syllables to be accented. This method is followed where the pronunciation is entirely obvious. Where accent marks are omitted, the omission indicates that all syllables are given substantially the same value.

(2) Where the pronunciation differs from the spelling, the word is re-spelled phonetically, in addition to the accentuation.

(3) Where the sound values of the vowels are not sufficiently indicated merely by an attempt at phonetic spelling, the following system of diacritical marks is additionally employed to approximate the proper sounds as closely as may be done:

The consonants, b, d, f, h, j, k, l, m, n, ng, p, sh, t, v, and z, when printed in Roman type, are always given their common English values in the transliteration of foreign words. The letter c is indicated by s or k, as the case may be. For the remaining consonant sounds the following symbols are employed:

ch is always as in rich.

d, nearly as th in this Sp. d in Madrid, etc.

g is always hard, as in go.

h represents the guttural in Scotch loch, Ger. nach, also other similar gutturals.

ņ, Fr. nasal n as in bon.

r represents both English r, and r in foreign words, in which it is gen

erally much more strongly trilled. s, always as in so.

th, as th in thin.
th, as th in this.

w always consonantal, as in we.
x = ks, which are used instead.

y always consonantal, as in yea (Fr.
ligne would be re-written lēny).
zh, as 8 in pleasure Fr. j.

WINSTON'S CUMULATIVE ENCYCLOPEDIA

LOOSE-LEAF

VOLUME V

Gastrula (gas-trö'la), or GASTREA, The largest engine of this type ever prothe name given by Haeckel duced was only 300 horsepower, and the to the hypothetical larva which he as- death of the inventor left it unpertected. sumed to be the starting point for the Of the explosion type the Holzwarth Metazoa or multicellular animals. The turbine is the most efficient. In this the gastrula arises from a blastosphere or combustion chamber is intermittently filled globular mass of cells which begin to fold in at one point until a thimble-shaped or ganism is formed. This individual he called a gastrula. It consists of two primitive layers, an outer layer, ectoderm, and an inner, endoderm. Consult Haeckel's Studies on the Gastræa Theory and his work on the calcareous sponges.

Gas Turbine, a turbine engine oper

ating by the energy of exploded gases, first invented by Réné Armengaud in France, in 1906. Gas tur

Holzwarth Gas Turbine.-Sectional Elevation. A, compressed air chamber. B, compressed gas chamber. C, combustion chamber. D, valve admitting compressed air to combustion chamber. E, nozzle valve admitting exploding gas to rim of motor F.

bines are now of two types, the constant pressure and the explosion. The Armengaud engine is of the former type. The gas and air are compressed separately and the mixture admitted in a constant stream into a combustion chamber, where it is ignited by an incandescent platinum wire.

with a mixture of gas and air admitted at the base of the machine. Ignition, explosion and increase in pressure of the burnt gases and their expansion through a nozzle result, after which the gases act on a horizontal turbine wheel. There are five or ten similar explosion chambers arranged in a circle at the base of the turbine, and these act one after the other or in series. When the combustion chamber has been filled with compressed air, compressed gas is driven in, while the nozzle valve remains closed. When the gas is ignited the valve is forced open and the pressure of the gases is transformed into kinetic energy. After each explosion the chamber is cleared and cooled by fresh air.

The turbine is provided with a horizontal governor shaft driven by a screw gearing. To this shaft are keyed the main governor, the emergency governor for preventing ignition, a tachometer, the ignition mechanism and the gear for operating a vertical oil distributor.

Gates (gats), HORATIO, an American
soldier, born in England in
1728. At the capture of Martinique he
was aide-de-camp to General Monkton,
and he was with Braddock when the latter
was defeated in 1755. On the conclusion
of peace he purchased an estate in Vir-
ginia, on which he resided until the
Revolutionary war in 1775. He was at
the head of the American army of_the
north when the British general Bur-
goyne was forced to surrender his whole
army at Saratoga (1777), though most
of the credit for this victory belonged to
the preceding commander, General Schuy-
ler.
eral Lincoln by Clinton, at Charleston,
In 1780, after the capture of Gen-
Gates received the chief command of the
southern districts, but was badly de-
feated two months later by Cornwallis at
Camden. He was then superseded by
General Greene and brought to court-