lectures, forums, discussion groups, and all other approaches to civic education, two points might be remembered:

1. That ample attention be given to reviewing the developments during the past two generations in the field under discussion so that all can understand afresh the changes which have come about.

2. That the best solution to a civic problem is one that will be the best for all the people.

In general, segregation of adults for civic education on the basis of age is to be avoided. Citizenship in our democracy is a lifetime responsibility, and the ideal is for citizens of any age to look at their responsibility from the point of view of the greatest good for the total population. Special citizenship activities and groupings for older people weakens this viewpoint. This in no way, of course, precludes the provision of leadership training, consultation services, and certain forms of direct leadership to established groups of older citizens.

Since greater numbers of middle-aged and older citizens have time to devote to civic activities, the civic education program should try to move them to action. Training in democratic discussion skills, use on advisory committees, involvement in study committees and policyformulation commissions, and participation in surveys and community studies are ways of helping adults mature in civic education.

Guidance Services

It is generally assumed that young people need guidance in vocational, educational, and personal matters because they are faced with family, social, and economic adjustments, are not thoroughly acquainted with themselves and the requirements of the world of work, and otherwise lack sufficient life experience to make sound judgments unaided. Actually counseling and guidance services may be as useful in helping the middleaged and older folk plan their later years as it is for youth in planning entrance upon full adult life. Maturity is relative and many adults approaching retirement and the years of marginal work are unable, alone, to size up their situations objectively and make rational plans. They have not had repeated experience in growing old.

A great deal of general orientation toward changes in attitudes and practices in vocational life, health, family life, and other phases of living can be done with receptive adults in a variety of group situations. Orientation is not enough, however. Every aging person contemplating changes in his own life plan must translate general theory into his own. action program. Many will need more or less personal help with the process. While counseling of the reorientation type may be useful at

retirement, sound practice requires that guidance services be available earlier throughout the adult years, in fact. Only by starting early is maximum adjustment possible.

Professionally trained day-school counselors often can be of some help in evaluation of past experience and training and in giving and interpreting psychological tests of interest, ability, and aptitude. A counselor having experience with adults, however, is much to be preferred. Only counselors thoroughly aware of the potentialities for rich living in the older years can be of maximum benefit to oldsters thinking of vocational change, of retiring, or of developing a plan for the latter half of life. Counseling the aging has a number of special aspects. These include counseling on occupational changes in mid-life or later, dealing with firm attitudes of older workers, and meeting the prejudices of employers. Any counselor desiring to work with this age group needs to make specialized preparation.

Lillien J. Martin, pioneer founder of the Old Age Counselling Center in San Francisco, reduced much of her work to a formula requiring five visits at least a week apart as follows:

First: Preliminary study of the personality. The reaction pattern of the client was studied; that is, how he reacted and was likely to continue to react if left to himself. The counselor also checked on physical condition, obtained the life history, gave some mental tests, made a psychodiagnosis, and gave needed mental and physical therapy designed to reorient the person to a new viewpoint. Psychotherapeutic methods used were discussion, suggestion, auto-suggestion, and use of slogans.

Second: Analysis of the daily program and distribution of time. This revealed much about the living habits of the client. Modifications often were made in the daily program at this visit.

Third: Study of the money budget. Income and expenditures were discussed and improvements developed if necessary.

Fourth: Discussion of near and far goals. This session weighed values in life and helped establish valid, worth-while goals suited to the client's needs and resources.

Fifth: Examination of the client's role in community life. While the first four visits focused on the individual, the fifth attempted to turn the client's interests outward to service to his fellow men so that he could perform his citizenship duty in our democracy and return to society some service for the benefits received from it.

The broad techniques of guidance for use with the aging are not es sentially different from those used with other ages. Specific information and simple advice on concrete problems often can be given in a single

interview, but a number of counseling centers for adults, in both public and private agencies, have found that any significant reorientation of life plans and viewpoint is likely to require a series of sessions of an hour or more each. Psychological tests help give an objectivity often useful with older people. After constructing a usable picture of a person's abilities, interests, strengths, and background, a trained and interested counselor can do much to assist an aging person to arrive at a definite plan of action for the years ahead. Interview forms, case history summary sheets, and various other information blanks are useful in obtaining a picture of living habits, past experience, and educational background.

Unless a very complete guidance and rehabilitation center can be set up, much of the value will necessarily lie in wise referral to other specialized services in the community. These will include referral to agencies and specialists, such as placement offices, educational institutions, agencies of vocational rehabilitation, psychiatrists, physicians with geriatric practice, and group work agencies. General and specific advice about participating in civic, group, and leisure-time activities should be based upon knowledge of available opportunities. Such advice is made much more effective if steps are taken to integrate the aging into new groups and involve them in new enterprises. At times this may require the establishment of new activities.

The Individual and the Program

These are some of the areas in which educational services and leadership can be provided by the public schools. Certainly most of the facilities for taking care of the needs of an aging population will have to be provided on a community basis through its business and industrial organizations, social welfare agencies, governmental departments, and educational programs. The other side of the picture, however, is the individual the aging person. Primary responsibility for seeing that adequate community facilities and programs are provided and that they are used to best advantage by all who need them rests with the individual especially with those who are well along in years. Only if they see the vision and work to bring it to fruition will our culture change sufficiently to make the latter years of life the golden years. The old need to learn as long as they live.

General

CRAMPTON, C. WARD. Live Long and Like It. Public Affairs Pamphlet No. 139. New York, Public Affairs Committee, Inc., 1948. 32 p.

De Gruchy, ClaRE. Creative Old Age. San Francisco, Old Age Counselling Center, 1946. 143 p.

GUMPERT, MARTIN. You Are Younger Than You Think. New York, Duell, Sloan, and Pearce, 1944. 244 p.

HAVIGHURST, ROBERT J. A New American Dilemma: Life After 60. The University of Chicago Magazine, 42:2-6, February 1950.

Developmental Tasks and Education. Chicago, The University of Chicago Press, 1948. Ch. VII and VIII.

JOHNSON, W. M. Years After Fifty. New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1947.

153 p.

LANDIS, P. H. Emerging Problems of the Aged. Social Forces, 20:460-67, May 1942.

LAWTON, GEORGE. Aging Successfully. New York, Columbia University Press, 1946.

266 p.

New Goals for Old Age. New York, Columbia University Press, 1943.

210 p.

and STEWART, MAXWELL. When You Grow Older. Public Affairs Pamphlet No. 131. New York, Public Affairs Committee, Inc., 1947. 31 p.

LIEB, CLARENCE W. Outwitting Your Years. New York, Prentice-Hall, 1949. 278 p.

NATIONAL RESOURCES PLANNING BOARD.

Human Conservation: The Story of Our

Wasted Resources. Washington, U. S. Government Printing Office, March 1945. 126 p.

NEW YORK STATE JOINT LEGISLATIVE COMMITTEE ON PROBLEMS OF THE AGING. Birthdays Don't Count. Legislative Document No. 61, 1948. 326 p.

Never Too Old. Legislative Document No. 32, 1949. 216 p.

POWYS, JOHN COOPER.

218 p

3 p.

The Art of Growing Old. London, J. Cape, Ltd., 1944.

STROUP, HERBERT H. Some Implications of an Aging Population. Educational Forum, 11: 335-38, March 1947.

TIBBITTS, CLARK. Aging and Living. Adult Education Bulletin, 12: 204–11, October 1948.

ed. Living Through the Older Years (Proceedings of the Charles A. Fisher Memorial Institute on Aging). Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press, 1949. 193 p.

Special Fields

ARTHUR, J. K. Jobs for Women Over 35. New York, Prentice-Hall, 1947. 253 p. BURGESS, ERNEST W., et al. Your Activities and Attitudes. Chicago, Science Research Associates, 1946. 10 p.

CAVAN, R. S., et al. Personal Adjustment in Old Age. Chicago, Science Research Associates, 1949. 204 p.

CHASE, MORRIS. Recreational Needs of the Aged. National Conference of Social Work, Seattle, Proceedings. Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1938, pp. 596-605.

CLAGUE, EWAN. Counseling Problems of Older Workers. Employment Security Review, 16: 7-9, March 1949.

Cole, Luella W. Attaining Maturity. New York, Farrar and Rinehart, 1944. 212 PP.

COWDRY, E. V. Problems of Ageing. Baltimore, Williams and Williams, 1943. 758 p.

De Gruchy, CLARE. Counselling the Aged. Geriatrics, 2: 183-87, May-June 1947. FISHER, GLADYS. Community Responsibility for the Aged. New York Conference on Social Work, 1943. pp. 112-17.

KAIGHN, R. P. How To Retire and Like It. New York, Association Press, 1942. 170 p.

LANDIS, J. T. Adult Education and the Aged. Adult Education Bulletin, 6: 106–108, April 1942.

Hobbies and Happiness in Old Age. Recreation, 35: 602, 641-42, January 1942. MARTIN, L. J., and DE GRUCHY, CLARE. Publication No. 1. Salvaging Old Age in Industry. No. 2. Salvaging Old Age in Social Work. No. 3. Salvaging Old Age in Family Relations. No. 4. Salvaging Old Age in Institutions. No. 5. Salvaging the Unemployed. No. 6. The Foundation Planks of the Old Age Center. No. 7. Salvaging Old Age in Civilian Defense. San Francisco, Old Age Counseling Center.

MILES, WALTER R. Performance in Relation to Age. Mental Health in Later Maturity. Public Health Reports, Supplement No. 168:34-42, 1942.

MOORE, E. H. Community Organization for Older Persons. Geriatrics, 3:306–13, September-October 1948.

PITKIN, W. B. The Best Years; How to Enjoy Retirement. New York, Grosset, 1948. 194 p

p.

POLLAK, OTTO, and HEATHERS, GLEN.

Social Adjustment in Old Age, A Research Planning Report (Bulletin No. 59). New York, Social Science Research Council, 1948. 199 p.

STIEGLITZ, EDWARD J. The Second Forty Years. New York, J. B. Lippincott Co., 1946. 317 p.

STIERI, E. The Book of Indoor Hobbies. New York, Whittlesey House, 1939.

430 p.

STOLZ, K. R. Making the Most of the Rest of Life. New York, Abingdon-Cokesbury, 1941. 216 p.

TODD, A. T. Medical Aspects of Growing Old. New York, Williams and Wilkins, 1947. 164 p.

WECHSLER, DAVID. The Measurement of Adult Intelligence. Baltimore, Williams and Wilkins, 1944. 258 p.

WILLIAMS, C. L. The Mental Hygiene of Aging. Geriatrics, 1:361–68, SeptemberOctober 1946.

WOLFE, W. BERAN. A Woman's Best Years: The Art of Staying Young. Garden City, N. Y., Garden City Publishing Company, 1946. 268 p.