him with a certain value, an image, due to the qualities they acquire through their functioning. And they cash in in values, and consequently images, which change from day to day, from year to year, according to the what and how of experience.

This represents but a part of the process in the development of consciousness. Gradually another manifestation appears. All these acts are tried in relation to each other. The images, or values, are played together in their felt relationships. So prominently is this experimenting with images the form of the child's activity during what is called the play period, that the constructive instinct may be said to be, to a large extent, the instinct of relationship. All the child's doings and the doings of the people about him are molded into plots. (It is true that the plots are fragmentary from the adult's standpoint).

The "tell me a story" attitude of the child is significant of the manner in which his mind is absorbing and putting forth. And what does this mean? Only a part of the value, the quality was attained through the experimentation in the first stage. Now the images, or values, are known as they are measured in proportion to each other. They become parts in related wholes. The "how much" of any image is revealed through the building up of some completed form of related images. This quantitative arrangement of values, through the expressed proportion, stands as a further defining and clarifying element, and represents a continued functioning of experience. So intensely does this instinct of relationship make itself felt that a child often experiments to the most absurd degree. Everything is tried out in relation to everything else until neither heaven nor earth escapes plot making. Not seeing this continuing process closely related in function to the one preceding, the students of playful activity have often gone far afield in the attempts to analyze what has been called the make-believe world in which the little child is supposed to live. Studied from the standpoint of growth, this form of activity, normally developed, represents a very real world and a more "definingly" true world than any other part of experience. It is the means by which the values of life are measured and mastered. * The Psychology of Child Development, Irving King.

When the child is relating his images in more or less fragmentary plots, it is very essential that the form of his expression should be understood. His first language is the use of the movement involved in the act with which to represent the image; later the most significant part of the movement is taken as the symbol of the activity. He constructs with movement language for a long time while he is building up a translated language of sounds. This first playing with related images is expressed through a medium of gesture, and the sound language connected with it. All kinds of agencies are used to help out the story. Chairs, tables, sticks assist in carrying over the expression of the images. These properties are some of the tally sticks by which many plots are kept moving. As the relation is more definitely wrought out, the rhythm becomes more and more the carrying agency. This dramatic game is the first form of the expression of relationships through the composition in a plot, or story form. As such an expression it is also the earliest art through which the child manifests his values of the factors of his life. When the images expressed through movements and tone reflect only the moods of a plot, we have some of the earliest forms of the dance. As the relations become more closely defined, gesture or the pantomimic element, is increasingly manifested and the plot may be recognized more easily. But the child is constantly using tones and words in connection with gesture, as his language expression, and his art forms build up as a composite type, with movements, tones, words, all an integral part of the expression. This embryonic art-form is the nucleus from which the other arts develop, for the sister arts of movement-music and literature-are but representations of more extensive and complex relationships of life. The medium of expression in both of these arts is a translated, constantly evolving language from the earlier compound form. Even the child's first drawings are, to a large extent, his record of plots and stories. The images are represented by the crudest symbols, but if one fails to understand the story, he will point out, with great effort, to the misguided grown-up, just how the several things he has represented are related to each other.

From the standpoint, then, of play, the constructive ele

ment, this first art represents the free relating of the values of experience in order to further define their value. The appearance of the constructive imagination does not mean that all kinds of images may not be experimcnted with, but this greatest end of art, to represent the values of life, calls for the plastic manipulation of the forces of daily struggle and enjoyment, industry, if you please, in its largest sense. When the imagination has developed to such a degree that images are freely combined, we also find the greatest freedom in the choice of symbols. The construction and appreciation of myths, fairy-tales, etc. is significant of this; but, unfortunately, it is often the only side that the teacher feels is obviously imaginative, and therefore valuable. If the myth be true, in the sense that the symbols employed as well as the values expressed are worth while in any permanent way, then the form is most valuable. But if fancy flies wide the mark and uses these more remote symbols without interpretative significance, then an æsthetic "sowing of wild oats" begins, and the harvest can be foretold as a crop of sentimentalism.

Art, then, in this function, becomes a necessary factor for the normal process of growth. And such an art involves a working conception of culture. It gives us a productive art and culture, and a measure through which industry becomes not only the source but the servant. "Art is industry unusually conscious of its meaning."* It also furnishes the clue for the future guidance and control of the industrial world, for it throws the balance of power over to the internal, rather than the external result of industry, which means that the playing as well as the working end, is significant. The ability for any people to choose and promote those activities which produce the most beautiful relationships comes from much experimenting with the relating of living values through forms which are beautiful because true.

Teachers College, Columbia University.

CAROLINE CRAWFORD.

* THE EDUCATIONAL BI-MONTHLY, Vol. I, No. 1.-Culture and Industry in Education. John Dewey.

Some Programs in the School Arts

ERNON Lee in Renaissance Fancies and Studies tells of work of the painters of the late thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries in the production of a complete set of pictorial themes, illustrative of gospel history and of the lives of the principal saints. For a long time their successors were fully occupied in filling up the program already indicated and then came a time for further invention.

The story of the arts in American life and schools has been given us by Dr. Haney in Art Education in the Public Schools of the United States, in clearer form than we have in many other subjects in any material available. We have not had any great inventions in art nor is the organization of detail very evident. One must go abroad to realize the larger development and movement at home. In Germany, one finds that certain constructive tendencies in American art teaching have had a definite and acknowledged influence. These are acknowledged perhaps most by some of the advocates of older, more rigid methods, who deplore change and hasten to charge any new current to that source of modern dangers, America. There is, however, recognition from the progressives as well. The older conditions, which supposed that execution based on copy and imitation kept up through a number of years would give children the thoroughness and accuracy hoped for in the results, are yielding to larger and more adequate activities.

Recently I have gone through some of the new courses of study and books on education which have come to my desk in order to see what evidence there is in them of the drift in school art matters and to what extent one can find proof of conscious planning for more satisfactory conditions. Professor McMurry's How to Study is perhaps the most significant educational book of the year. We find in it the best statement that has yet been made of that special case of the application in study of man's advantage over brutes in that, instead of evolution only by slow stages and often.

by chance and hard knocks, he has the added tool of consciousness which makes possible invention and initiative in highly-developed forms. Furthermore, this author has afforded us an extremely valuable statement of the real function of the newer subjects in the curriculum-the necessity of them in carrying out even the ends set up by those persons who desire a narrow curriculum. These services rendered by the author are important to the work in the arts, as are the eight factors in study which he discusses. What is now needed is an analysis by some art worker of study and other factors in the school participation in the arts, based upon this contribution In its index, there is, I believe, but one reference to art or related subjects.

Another new book is O'Shea's Social Development and Education. Here we find much suggestive material, but a study of the index does not reveal the references on the arts one might expect in a work on social education. There is an excellent section on the "development of aesthetic interests" in which it is stated: "In the establishment of aesthetic interests, any great work of art in the world can influence an individual's life only when he is led up to the artist's sphere of thought and feeling; and this means that he must have something of the same real, vital, aesthetic experience as the artist. In the attainment of this end, formal lessons in drawing will be of slight avail. Even analysis of great works of art will accomplish but little. That training alone will be educative in an effective way which causes the pupil constantly to make choices among varying aesthetic values and to produce aesthetic things. From the beginning to the end of his education, he must be kept in direct contact with aesthetic environments within his range of appreciation, being aided in the assimilation and production of aesthetic values according to his degree of development. We may count upon it as certain that the results of all the world's aesthetic activities will have social worth for the individual, and become ends for his own endeavors only as he grows to assimilate them in the manner indicated."

Habit Formation by Professor Rowe has much more definite reference to drawing, manual training, and allied topics. One significant passage relates to the dangers of over-prac