demonstration functions, they will continue to be a seriously pernicious factor in this educational field.

Every child should be trained physically to its best. point, and no influence which stifles interest and cripples effort by establishing impossible standards can be permitted. to dominate indefinitely.

Children cannot be forced into a process of physical development, which shall be continuous, without interest. So far as I can see, this interest can only be supplied by evolving gradually and consistently an ideal of physical perfection to which each shall adhere as tenaciously as to any standard in life.

Let individual achievement displace the desire for conspicuous success. Let emulation take the place of disheartened envy. Let a high standard of school superiority displace the feverish eagerness for the glory of a winning team. Then may we hope for general growth of an ideal which shall guide our physical lives.

In conclusion, let us realize that mental, moral, and physical poise go together.

Disciplinary factors, external and internal, involved in self-control are of incalculable value in the growth of character.

Is there any prospect of realizing our legitimate hope for the race struggling with the incubus of civilization, except in the apprehension by teachers of the importance of this matter.

Is there any other class of society which can undertake to develop and mobilize the conviction necessary to accomplish this regeneration?

Chicago, Ill.

HENRY BAIRD FAVILL, M. D.

Modern Psychology and Music Study *

CHI

HIS paper claims no special authority in its field. It is an attempt to put in writing some rambling suggestions made more than a year ago before the Music Section of the Colorado State Teachers' Association. In its preparation no experiments have been performed and no authorities consulted. It exploits no single system of music instruction and represents no psychological cult. The psychological defects which it aims to criticise and correct were observations made in various schools through several years, and it has seemed impossible to organize its content in any consistent logical form. Furthermore it represents the opinions of an educator interested in music, rather than a musician interested in education, and wherever the technical interests of music and education seem to conflict, support is invariably given the latter. Music holds its place in the school curriculum not primarily for the sake of music but for the sake of education.

Music's first service to education is its broadening of the sensory life and its making available a greater supply of the raw material of thought. The 50,000 possible sensations, referable to the stimulation of a dozen or more groups of sense organs and the consequent reactions of corresponding brain centers, must be thought of as the ultimate material of all human experience. Other things equal, the individual who is responsive to the largest number of visual sensations will have the richest experience and the statement is even more true of auditory sensations. What nature study and art and construction accomplish in the development of visual perception, music should accomplish in the auditory field. The greater the number of the tones distinguishable by the human ear the individual is responsive to, the greater are the probabilities of his correctly perceiving and interpreting and enjoying the world in which he lives. This is by no * Address before Department of Music Education, National Education Association, July 7, 1909.

means an insignificant service of music to education.

For present purposes I distinguish three significant elements of music: (1) tone, (2) rhythm,† (3) meaning,-including both the images and the feelings aroused.

1. The value of pure tone in the life of childhood has, I feel sure, been too much overlooked. Children love tones for their own sake. Recall the evident satisfaction of the infant droning his monotone in the cradle, the incessant bird calls and cat calls and imitations of the calliope from a group of boys, the enthusiasm of all children for drums and whistles and horns. These are but signs of the intense tonehunger which possesses every normal boy and girl. And yet much of our music instruction completely ignores this love of tones and depends on the wholly unnecessary association of words with tones for interest in the work. In many cases pupils' attention is attracted to the words and away from the tones and their relations, thus defeating the very purpose aimed at by early training in music. Many people have reached maturity without having developed an interest in any kind of music but vocal music, simply because, in the initial stages of their training, attention was given wholly to the words, and the song became simply a means of telling a story. This is especially unfortunate since the story interest is naturally strong and needs no such re-enforcement. I do not mean to say that there should be no singing of songs by young children,-there should be a great deal of it,-but my plea is for a great deal more attention to tones and their relations for their own sake.

Musicians all realize the genetic antecedence of melody to harmony; single tones arranged in series precede simultaneous groupings of tones. This is due, of course, to the fact that in mental development successive association comes before simultaneous association. Primitive music is largely monotone, and at best a serial arrangement of a few easily distinguished tones. I conclude, therefore, that the vocal training of little children should include, at first, but few tones, and these with large rather than small intervals, that is 1, 3, 5, rather than 1, 2, 3. As the development of the eye makes possible the distinguishing of spectral colors † Genetically I should place Rhythm first.

before shades and tints of the same color, so the development of the auditory function brings about a sensitivity to large intervals before small ones are felt. Indeed all learning proceeds by successive fluctuations between ever narrowing limits. Chords and accompaniments are to be avoided, because with the child's limited range of attention and limited ability to analyze, they obscure for him the important factor and tend to disperse rather than focalize his mental content.

2. In rhythm, too, we have one of the most fundamental facts of consciousness. But rhythm is subject to the law of all motor development, viz., that control proceeds from fundamental to accessory movements, from central to periferal muscles. The rhythms to which small children respond with vigor are simple and well accented. The more complex rhythms involve a type of reaction entirely too highly specialized for motor control of primary pupils. But this principle is frequently overlooked in public school music. Many children's songs involve a complexity of rhythm which is much beyond their ability to feel. Reference has already been made to the few tones of primitive music; it will also be recalled that savage music, as well as the dance, as a rule is marked by simple rhythm and vigorous accent. Personally I favor much activity in connection with early music training. The pulses of the music should be felt throughout the entire organism and should be expressed by a vigorous motor response.

3. What I have designated as meaning, the third of the significant elements in music, arises when tone and rhythm become associated, through word or action, with definite images. If a child has been properly trained in the appreciation of and response to tone and rhythm, the transition to meaning is natural and easy. A percept, or any other mental fusion, is more than the sum of its constituent sensations. Its meaning depends on the total organic response to it as a stimulus, and while this response is different from the sum total of the instinctive responses of its constituent sensations, it could not have been developed but for them. All developed reactions are built upon native instincts. The consciousness accompanying instinctive reac

tions is vague and dispersed, a mass of feeling almost, if not wholly, devoid of imagery. This mass of feeling, as it were the echoings of racial experience, is organized into the images, the meanings, the specific values of individual experience by the building of specific reactions out of native instinctive adjustments. And it is thus that the intelligent meaning of music takes form out of the sensuous pleasantness of tone and rhythm, provided the process is not hastened and aborted by the too early and undue use of word and story. With the instinctive enjoyment of tone and rhythm killed or atrophied, a song can never mean more than the mere story expressed by its words, and instrumental music can have neither meaning nor enjoyment. This intimate interdependence of motor and mental differentiation also has a bearing on the relationship existing between tonal expression and tonal discrimination. Psychologists assure us that a trained ear can distinguish more than 11000 pitches, yet all our music is written by the use of about 90 of these, and the extreme range of vocal music includes less than half of these 90. The limited range of the human vocal apparatus for the expression of tones correspondingly limits the field of accurate discrimination and appreciation of tones and their combinations. Were it not for the fact that pitches beyond the range of one's voice are subjectively represented to one by the kinesthetic sensations due to the vocal production of the corresponding tone in a lower or higher octave, all instrumental music would necessarily be limited to to the range of vocal music. Ability in the discrimination of tones is measured by ability in the expression of those tones. This implies, does it not, not only that the vocal instruction of children should be limited to the few tones which fall easily within the range of their voices, and of sufficiently great intervals to be easily produced and distinguished by them, but also that all music presented for their enjoyment and cultivation should be somewhat limited in range by the same considerations. If sustained pitches beyond the range of his voice are painful to the adult hearer, their use cannot be very educative to the immature child. There is real need for more careful investigations of the natural range of the voices of boys and girls of all ages, and for the systematic rewriting