is none the less the greatest philosopher America has produced. He combines to a remarkable degree the genius of the Orient (which is that of synthesis and unity) with the genius of the West, which tends to individuality and practical endeavor. Unlike the Orientals, however, he does not look upon the phenomenal world as illusion and delusion, but rather as a revelation of the Divine. Like Spinoza, Emerson is permeated with the idea of Unity, which he calls the Oversoul-though it has not the slightest relation to Nietzsche's Ueber-Mensch. With all his idealism Emerson is thoroughly practical in the character of his philosophy, and the aphoristic form in which he has expressed it has made it current, so that now it is an integral part of daily life and expression.

What influence Emerson may have had on the present tendency for oriental and esoteric thought is not easy to say; but the advocates of the New Idealism, the New Humanism, and of other cults now in vogue, find Emerson's words the ready expression for their own mood of thought. This comes perhaps from the fact that Emerson deals with universals rather than with particulars, with eternal truths rather than with facts of limited application..

In treating of German philosophy, Hegel was not specially named, although his importance is not slight; but it is noteworthy that his influence in America has been vastly greater than in Germany. Hegel was first recognized in America by that little coterie in St. Louis of which William T. Harris was leader. Later this group had wider scope here and abroad by the publication of the Journal of Speculative Philosophy, and by establishing the Concord School. Further than this, it is to be noted that Hegel's thought has especially influenced prominent educators, such as William T. Harris, our former Commissioner of Education already mentioned, Professor Royce of Harvard, Ella Flagg Young, Superintendent of Chicago Schools, John Dewey of Columbia, and others. It is possible that none of those could or would be labelled as strict Hegelians, and their writings bearing on education all show an individual bent, yet at the same time there is evidence in each of them of a profound insight into Hegel's philosophy.

The philosopher in America who is attracting most attention at home and abroad at the present time is William James. Mr. James is a pragmatist-that is to say, he accepts a theory as true if he finds it to be a good working hypothesis. He was asked not long ago what were his chief aims. He answered: "To find a balm for men's souls". Professor James started out in life with the intention of becoming a physician, and his studies in this line have been of value to him. He soon turned from physics to metaphysics, and since then he has, as he expressed it, been "trying to find a balm for men's souls". As a philosopher, James has faced, with heroic courage many of the problems relating to life and destiny. He sees the evil that exists in the world and does not attempt to explain it away. The pessimist, Von Hartman, once said: "God is either wicked or he is not omnipotent. If he is all-powerful the making of this world is a crime". Professor James does not express himself in that fashion. Recognizing that this world is far from perfect he has faith to believe that God (whatever he may mean by the term) is doing the best He can, and that if man will cooperate with Him the higher evolution desired will be the sooner brought about; that man himself is an important factor in working out what is called the Eternal Purpose.

Professor James is thoroughly opposed to pessimism and skepticism, and on philosophic grounds. Both pessimism and skepticism paralyze the will and lead to inaction. Instead of these James emphasizes faith, or the Will to Believe, on the ground that it leads to better results. He says: "Believe; it is good for you to believe. Believe that life is worth living and your belief creates the fact."

Who can gainsay it?

In ways like this James has come to the rescue of many anxious souls disturbed over the impossibility of knowing pure truth, and distressed over the amount of sin and misery in the world. To such he gives a working hypothesis: "Believe in the good and do your utmost to create it."

With William James, this paper comes to an end. In closing it may be said that it is the tendency of to-day to emphasize action and to underrate creed. One often hears the expression: "Creed matters little, Conduct is all". Only

a shallow thinker can accept the assertion, for religious creed and philosophic creed are both all important. Right action comes from right thinking, and this is possible only when man does his level best to know the truth, and knowing it, dares to follow wherever it may lead, sure in the faith that cost what it may it is truth alone that makes man free.

CAROLINE K. SHERMAN.

T

The Proposed Movement for Treating Stam

mering in the Public Schools *

AM glad to be present at this meeting to-night, for the the question under discussion is one in which I am deeply interested. I realize that a paper from Dr. Makuen will be of the greatest value in stimulating an interest in this subject. The question of speech in its larger aspect is the most fundamental thing in life, and, in America, at least, has never been given the attention which it should rightly have. In his address to a graduating class of Bryn Mawr College, Henry James said: "All life comes back to the question of our speech, the medium through which we communicate with each other; for all life comes back to the question of our relations with each other. These relations are made possible and are successful in proportion as our speech is worthy of its great human and social function-is developed, delicate, flexible, rich-an adequate and accomplished fact." He spoke to young ladies of normal speech habits and made a plea only for a tone standard, which, he said, reflected the degree of civilization to which a people had attained. Most of us will agree with him that our national use of vocal tone is slovenly and ineffective and, without doubt, there is need of greater care in this respect. But a greater obligation rests upon those in charge of children whose oral communication is so disorganized as to be inarticulate as well as ugly and unpleasing, an obligation to use every effort to give them freedom and precision in the use of their speech organs, so that they shall not be hampered and frustrated in their intellectual and social intercourse; and the effort should not be neglected at any time during the formative period of their lives.

The plan for treating cases of stammering and other speech defects in the public schools of Chicago was determined upon by Superintendent Young as the result of a report, made at her request, by the principals of the elementary *Read before the Chicago Medical Society, April 6, 1910.

schools. This report was to the effect that in the 260 grammar schools there were 1287 children with defects of this nature, the majority of them being in the primary grades. The maximum number was found in the fourth grade, after which time there was a steady decrease until, in the eighth grade, only 72 cases were reported. Judging that the decrease after the fourth grade was due to the fact that children with such defects become discouraged and leave school for other pursuits and not that they outgrow or overcome the difficulty, the superintendent concluded that if intelligent measures were taken in the primary grades, when the speech organs were plastic and speech habits were being formed, to teach children to speak correctly, many children who exhibited the first observable symptoms of disorganized speech, such as hesitation and imperfect articulation, might be prevented from becoming habitual stammerers or stutterers. Such children would then remain in school for a longer period and a broader and surer foundation be laid for selfrealization and good citizenship. In accordance with the superintendent's recommendation, the Board of Education on December 29, 1909, authorized her to employ unassigned teachers and cadets to give special instruction to children in the schools who are defective in this respect, for the purpose of helping them to gain control of their speech organs.

In pursuance of this plan, there were selected from the class to be graduated in January, 1910, from the Chicago Normal College, ten young ladies, who formed a special class to study speech defects and their remedies. These students had passed the two years' course in the Normal College, which in addition to courses in academic subjects included a major course in the following subjects: Psychology, Educational Theory, Physical Education, both theory and practice, and a minor course in Oral Expression. All of these courses except the latter were designed primarily to give the students insight and knowledge into the activities and mental processes of children. The course in Oral Expression did not include a study of speech defects, as it is a minor course and the time did not permit going into that phase of speech, but a good foundation was laid for such investigation.

The course includes a study of the mechanism of speech,