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only surroundings make the man is found in his own career; room must be made for the subtle something which is termed personality. The inspiration of his life and ideals has made the world better for his having lived. "He was," says Podmore, "the arch-heretic-Athanasius alone against the world-to the economic orthodox of his day, the gospel according to Ricardo and the men of Manchester. He found his contemporaries obsessed by a nightmare; and if he sought to replace it by a dream, the dream was at least generous and human."

He had shown that shorter hours and better conditions for workmen did not lessen profits; he had helped in the passage of the first Factory Act in 1819. His influence has lived in trade unionism and the coöperative movement.

Thus it may fairly be said that Owen, more by his ideals than by his doctrines, is still a force in the upbuilding of the new social order which is being slowly worked out, not so much by revolution as by evolution. The law of social progress may be likened to that of the spiral, which goes forward and backward, forward and backward, traces and retraces, but, nevertheless, slowly but surely advances.

IV

"DAS KAPITAL"

O THE question, What is Socialism? a va

Triety of answers may be given.

To some people socialism means simply the extension of government ownership and direction to a few institutions such as the post office, schools, canals, water works, and electric lighting plants, while to others it means government ownership and control of all means of production. Many also regard it as a protest against the existing order of society in both a political and economic sense. Socialism, then, may be simply the feelings of "one who hath yearnings for equal returns to unequal earnings," or it may be a complete program of social change.

Among many varieties, what is known as Utopian Socialism may be mentioned. This embraces a social dream or the idea of an ideal community like that worked out by Plato in the Republic.

Under the inspiration of Plato, Sir Thomas More, a great English scholar of the Sixteenth Century, wrote Utopia, or The Land of Nowhere, an imaginary kingdom. Along the same line was an attempt by Robert Owen to establish an actual ideal community at New Harmony. The social ideals of Saint-Simon, Fourier, and others may be put in this class. Christian Socialism, under the leadership of such men as Kingsley, Maurice, and Hughes, exerted at one time considerable influence and was based on voluntary coöperation inspired by the Christian ideal of human brotherhood. Fabian Socialism is still another variety and demands explicitly that only those industries which can be conveniently managed by the community should be undertaken by it. The Fabians are really evolutionists and not revolutionists, and adhere to the method of "making haste slowly." The term Fabian is derived from the name of Quintus Fabius Maximus, a Roman general noted for his cautious and dilatory tactics. Sidney and Beatrice Webb, Graham Wallas, and other noted writers, are interested in the Fabian Society. Guild Socialism is still another type of more recent development and is a plan for the management of industry by self-governing organizations of workers, acting in coöperation with the political State. Under this plan, "ownership of the means of produc

tion is to rest with the community, but the Trade Unions are to be definitely recognized by the State as the normal controllers of industry." All workers in industry, from general manager to laborers, will be included in the unions, and the result will be guilds or associations not of dependent but of independent producers. Other varieties of socialism may be mentioned, but as Professor Veblen well says:

"The socialism that inspires hopes and fears today is of the school of Marx. No one is seriously apprehensive of any other so-called socialistic movement.-The socialists of all countries gravitate toward the theoretical position of avowed Marxism. In proportion as the movement in any given community grows in mass, maturity, and conscious purpose, it unavoidably takes a more consistent Marxian complexion."

The curious fact is that the various sects of socialists today, whether made up of parlor socialists or of bolshevists, alike have Karl Marx as their spiritual father. Marx, in his early career and writings, preached the doctrine of physical force, bloody suppression of opponents, and the dictatorship of the proletariat. Later he became more conservative and peaceful, and emphasized the idea of evolution and not revolution. The moderate socialists of today are the followers of the latter-day Marx. But to all alike, orthodox scientific socialism, or communism, as Marx preferred to call

it, means the replacement of private property in land and capital by common ownership, and of private management of production by collective management. In other words, scientific socialism means the collective ownership and collective direction of all means of production.

1. THE HIGH PRIEST OF SOCIALISM

Karl Marx, the future author of Das Kapital and other socialistic books, was born in the old German town of Trier in 1818. His father, who in 1824, with his family, passed from Judaism to Protestantism, was a legal official. After graduating from the gymnasium of his native place, Marx entered the University of Bonn, and after spending a rather unprofitable year, went to Berlin in the fall of 1836. Hegel had been dead some five years, but his influence was still potent, and students came from all parts of Germany. Among those who studied there was Feuerbach, whose Essence of Christianity was translated into English by George Eliot. David Strauss, author of the Life of Jesus, was another. Savigny was lecturing upon Roman law; Gans upon criminal law; Erbrecht and Bruno Bauer upon theology; Karl Ritter upon geography; and J. P. Gabler upon logic. Of these, Bauer and Erbrecht were Marx's personal friends.

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