quently met. There are a few experimental works on reading. The Chinese Journal of Psychology, which has four volumes now, is owned by the Chinese Psychological Society. Professor Y. C. Chang is the president of the Society and, at the same time, the editor of the Journal. The National Association for the Advancement of Education has a section on Eductional Psychology, from which all achievements in that field come.

Psychology departments are found in Yen-Chin University, National University of Peking, Peking National Normal University, Peking Women's College in Peking; Nankai University in Tientsin; Teachers College in Wuchang; National Southeastern University in Nanking; Fu-Tan University in Shanghai; Amoy University in Amoy; and National University of Kwangtung in Canton. Although most, if not all, of them have some apparatus for demonstration and elementary laboratory courses, none has yet a regular laboratory building for research in experimental or animal work. Fu-Tan University in Shanghai is said to have built a Psychology Laboratory for Mr. Zing Yang Kuo, formerly of the University of California, but it is doubtful whether any research is carried on there.

To be a psychologist in China now is to be an all-round psychologist. While giving courses in general, educational, experimental, social, child, abnormal and comparative psychology, one is still entitled and required to devise tests, both 'intelligence' and 'educational.' Some of the earlier psychologists are T. C. Chen, Y. Tang (both of Cornell), T. T. Lew, Y. C. Chang, and H. C. Chen, all of Columbia. Mr. H. C. Chen and Mr. Ping Lin (the latter formerly of Stanford) are the only specialists on Child Psychology. Mr. Kong Wu was a student of William James. Mr. T. L. Wong did some important animal work in Chicago but has now quitted that field. Mr. C. W. Luh's research on "The Conditions of Retention" was considered by Professor Carr to be one of the best Ph.D. dissertations from the Chicago Laboratory. Mr. Luh is now recognized as one of the foremost, if not the foremost psychologist in China. Mr. Z. Y. Kuo started explicitly the anti-instinct movement in this country by his sensational article, "Giving Up Instincts in Psychology." Mr. T. C. Tu did work on vertical and horizontal reading of Chinese in the University of Iowa, and Mr. Hua I, formerly of George Washington University, is now performing some experiments on reading, using prisoners as subjects. Mr. Eugene Shen, a statistician, logician, and psychologist, who did important experimental work on the reading of Chinese by photographically recording eye movements at Stanford, is still in this country.

There appeared last year in the Eastern Miscellany two articles introducing the Gestalt theory. Some of the books translated into Chinese during the last ten or fifteen years and some of the original treatises on psychology published comparatively recently are as follows:

(1) General Psychology: Dewey, How We Think; Hart, Psychology of Insanity; Höffding, Outlines of Psychology; Poffenberger, Applied Psychology; Watson, Psychology from the Standpoint of a Behaviorist; Woodworth, Dynamic Psychology; Wundt, Introduction to Psychology.

(2) Child Psychology: Gaupp, Psychologie des Kindes; Kirkpatrick, Fundamentals of Child Study; Tracy, Psychology of Adolescence.

(3) Educational Psychology: Colvin, The Learning Process, Human Behavior; Edwards, The Fundamental Principles of Learning and Study; James, Talks to Teachers on Psychology; McCall, How to Experiment in Education, How to Measure in Education; Starch, Experiments in Educational Psychology; Thorndike, Educational Psychology (Briefer Course); Whipple, How to Study Effectively.

(4) Social Psychology: Ellwood, An Introduction to Social Psychology; LeBon, The Crowd, La Psychologie politique et la defense sociale,

Cf. this JOURNAL, 38, 1927, 487 f.

Les opinions et les croyances, Psychology of Revolution; McDougall, An Introduction to Social Psychology; Marbe, Grundzüge der forensischen Psychologie; Wallas, The Great Society, Human Nature in Politics.

(5) Original Treatises: Cheng, T. C., Outlines of Psychology (probably the oldest text); Kuo, Z. Y., Human Behavior, Vol. I (extreme behavioristic treatment); Luh, C. M., Psychology (the only textbook for the Senior Middle School), A Treatise on Social Psychology; Liao, S. C., Educational Psychology. SIEGEN K. CHOU

Stanford University

THE ACCURACY OF THE METHOD OF CONSTANT STIMULI Culler' in his recent note on the method of constant stimuli has found that, in the fractionated data of Urban's lifted weight experiments, there is a correlation between c and h, and on the basis of this concludes that these two variables are not independent as Urban stated, but are dependent. All of Culler's correlations are worked out in terms of p (Spearman's rank-correlation). If these had been calculated in terms of r (Pearson's product-moment correlation) there would have been considerable difference from the values which he has given. Table I gives some values of r and p calculated from various experiments where the method of constant stimuli was used. The first seven of these are from lifted-weight experiments and the remainder are in the visual-perceptual field. In the case of lifted-weights there is in general a high positive correlation between

'Elmer Culler, The accuracy of the method of constant stimuli, this JOURNAL, 38, 1927, 307-312.

F. M. Urban, Der Einfluss der Übung bei Gewichtsversuchen, Arch. f. d. ges. Psychol.,

29, 1913, 271-311.

3S. W. Fernberger, Table I, The influence of mental and physical work in the formation of judgments in lifted weight experiments, J. Exper. Psychol., 1, 1916, 515.

Table II, ibid.

Table XI, On the relation of the methods of just perceptible differences and constant stimuli, Psychol. Monog., 14, 1913, no. 61, 39.

Table XII, ibid., 40.

Table I, An experimental study of the 'stimulus error,' J. Exper. Psychol., 4, 1921, 71. Table II, ibid.

Table III, ibid.

10Table VI, A preliminary study of the range of visual apprehension, this Journal, 32, 1921, 129.

Table VII, ibid.

H. S. Oberly, Table VII, The range of visual attention, cognition and apprehension, ibid., 35, 1924, 342.

Table VIII, ibid.

c and h although in one case there is a low negative one. In the visualperceptual field there is a decided tendency towards a low correlation. Where there is a low correlation the value of p tends to be greater than r, in one case a difference of 0.657.

From the statistical theory of sampling we should be led to expect that c and h would remain fairly constant for a given observer, unless practice entered or there was a change of attitude on the part of the observer, but theoretically it is not clear what a high correlation between these would indicate, perhaps homogeniety of material or relationship between the variables.

Further if, as Culler contends, c and h are not independent but dependent, then the method of Least Squares breaks down, for our observation equations would take on the form

so that the most probable value of h might be either the arithmetic or the geometric mean.

Since the (y)-hypothesis is directly dependent on the method of Least Squares it would seem that if there is dependence between c and h the whole method would have to be rejected. Further if c and h are dependent then has Culler not used quantities which were obtained in an improbable manner to establish this relationship?

University of Pennsylvania

HAROLD M. LUFKIN

TWO PRONOUNCED CASES OF VERBAL IMAGERY

A number of years ago (1914) I discovered, among my students in a class in experimental psychology at the University of Oregon, a girl (M. M.) whose imagery seemed to be limited to the verbal type. During the past year, I discovered a man (W.A.), among my students in elementary psychology, whose imagery type seemed similarly limited. These two cases are so marked and unusual that I think it advisable to make them a matter of record.

M.M. was of the pure verbal-motor type.' The heard word had meaning to her only as she repeated it. She never took notes during a lecture, for she found it impossible to write and at the same time to repeat the lecturer's words. She had to devote her entire effort to the repetition of the words as they fell from the lecturer's lips. She even had to repeat the words spoken to her in a conversation if she wished to understand what was said. When she failed to pronounce a word, it was as if that word had been spoken in a foreign tongue.

For a description of another case of this type cf. S. W. Fernberger, Possible effects of the imaginal type of the subject on aphasic disturbances, this JOURNAL, 30, 1919, 330 f.

Tests that I gave her showed that she comprehended the spoken word, just as the average reader comprehends the written word, by way of throat kinaesthesis. In other words, she 'heard' as the average person 'reads.' In one of the tests I had her protrude her tongue and hold it between her teeth, so as to inhibit in a measure the verbal movements accompanying the heard word, and then I read sentences to her-which fell within the range of her memory span-at various rates of speed. At the moderate and slow rates she was able to reproduce the sentences, but at the rapid rate she failed. In another test I read a sentence to her while she was rapidly repeating a word aloud. Under these conditions she either failed to comprehend what was read or her rate of repetition slowed down noticeably.

As might have been expected, she read kinaesthetically; and for a motor reader she read at an extremely rapid rate. It is possible that the practice effect in 'motor hearing' carried over to the reading.

M.M. was sensitive regarding her 'defect,' as she looked upon it. She had long been aware that she differed from other people, having first realized it soon after she started to grammar school; but until she took psychology she did not know just how she differed.

As far as I was able to determine, she lacked visual and auditory imagery and was of the pure verbal-motor type. If she was under a handicap because of this, she was successful in overcoming it. Her university record showed no failures, and she was graduated with her class with marks above the average.

W.A.'s images were verbal like M.M.'s, but of the auditory type. Unless the 'heard' or 'read' words were accompanied by auditory imagery they were meaningless symbols to him. He comprehended conversations and lectures, or words read or written, through auditory verbal images. The 'word' to be understood, had to be imaginally 'heard.' Even W.A.'s thinking was done to a great extent in auditory-verbal images.

The knowledge that he differed from other people came to him, as to M.M., at an early age. He says, in a carefully prepared report on his type of imagery, that "I first noticed that my reading differed from the average person's when my cousin commented on the fact that she could read much faster to herself than out loud. As I had never noticed any difference in speed between oral and silent reading I tested it and found that there was no difference for me. I was about 9 yrs. old at the time."

W.A.'s imaginal type did not handicap him in grammar school because he had sufficient time to cover small assignments, but as he advanced to the higher grades, to high school, and to college, it became increasingly difficult for him to do the required work. He went through lectures, recitations, and hours of study under a constant surge of auditory-verbal images, which were at times as vivid as hallucinations. "The perpetual sounds of words in my head," he writes, "produced headaches, which became more and more severe and frequent as the number of lectures and the length of the class-room assignments increased."

In his senior year in high school W.A. made, at the suggestion of his teacher in classics who became interested in his case, a serious attempt to change, or at least to supplement, his type of imagery. He tried to read visually, but with no success. "Verbs, prepositions, adjectives, and adverbs," he reports, "meant absolutely nothing to me, and only a few of the nouns and pronouns carried meaning." If he was to graduate, he had to cover his assignments; consequently his attempt to modify his imagery was short-lived. The only effect of the attempt was to intensify his feeling of difference.

He found, when he came to Cornell, that the assignments were too long to be done by his usual methods of study, and so he appealed to his class

advisor a member of the department of psychology-for assistance. At the suggestion of his advisor he again attempted to alter his type of imagery. He counted aloud so as to drown the sounds of his auditory images, and at the same time he attempted to visualize as he read. It was of no use, however, for he could not understand what he read in this way. Though he made an earnest effort, the attempt to modify his imagery again failed. The din of the auditory images which always accompanied his verbal perceptions became so intense that he seldom passed a day without a headache. The headaches became progressively more frequent and more severe until just before he decided to leave college he found it impossible to study for more than half an hour at a time.

W.A.'s images were almost exclusively of the auditory-verbal type. Visual images were rare in his experience, and when they did occur they were fleeting and unclear. I was unable to tell whether he had motor images; if he did, they did not bulk large in his mental life. He localized the auditory-verbal images within his head, and described them as high in pitch.

Cornell University

KARL M. DALLENBACH

MR. GUNDLACH ON "SOME DIFFICULTIES WITH WEISS'S

BEHAVIORISTIC POSTULATES"

I do not suppose that Mr. Gundlach expects me to meet his criticism of my postulates. However, a general statement of my own reason for not doing so may interest the readers of this JOURNAL. If Mr. Gundlach's point of view is adequately expressed by his quotation from Bentley (IIC); it (psychology) "seeks to describe and to understand experience and the activities of the total organism in which experience plays an essential part," and if my point of view is expressed by psychology studies the development of those movements, from infancy to maturity, which make the individual a coöperative unit in a social organization' then the futility of our trying to reach any agreement seems obvious. For me it is immaterial whether or not (IIC) "psychology has its own definite problems and point of view which are not to be confused with those of other sciences." On the contrary I hope that some day psychology will be a part of Science with a capital S, as Max Meyer has recently expressed it. Nor do I see any more objection to making "psychology the handmaid of the social sciences" than the mathematicians object to having mathematics regarded as the handmaid of all Science. On the other hand, the traditional psychology which Mr. Gundlach represents does insist upon "its own definite problems and point of view" and does object to the 'handmaid' principle. We also differ widely on the principles of criticism. Mr. Gundlach avoids "subjecting himself" to what he calls "the criticism of internal inconsistency which less explicit authors happily escape." This is the atmosphere of clever debating, not that of science. As one of the "too explicit authors" I prefer not to engage in a debate. It seems to me that a most eloquent refutation of my postulates would be the formulation of an alternative set. This would leave the scientific reader free to chose between them.

Ohio State University

A REJOINDER

A. P. WEISS

Through the courtesy of Professor Weiss and of the Editors of the JOURNAL I have been given an opportunity of appending a rejoinder to his 'reply,' but there is no need nor occasion for me to say anything as Professor Weiss does not touch upon my criticisms. He merely states why he does not reply. Criticisms, however, are not met by ignoring them, nor are internal inconsistencies justified by a refusal "to engage in a debate." University of Illinois RALPH GUNDLA CH

'Ralph Gundlach, this JOURNAL, 38, 1927, 469-475.