what different point of view; for then a false step may already have been taken. To prevent parenthood in the case of a defective party might then also prevent it in a highly endowed mate; and the question to be decided where such a possibility had to be faced would be as to the way in which the balance of advantages and disadvantages to the race would then turn. This problem is fundamentally the same as that already discussed, except that the qualities of both potential parents and of all their relatives have to be taken into account.

RARE DISEASES

There are large numbers of ailments, for the most part of very infrequent occurrence, brachydactyly and hæmophilia being the only examples mentioned in these pages, which follow definite rules of inheritance. Some of them are dependent on a single dominant factor, some on a single recessive factor, some are sex-linked, whilst others are clearly hereditary though the rules of their inheritance have not yet been discovered. These abnormal qualities are of the utmost importance to the individuals concerned, and their study should form an essential part of the training of every eugenic expert. The questions involved being highly technical, to deal adequately with this subject would need a whole volume. Moreover, if we are looking to the ultimate fate of the race as a wholeand that is the standpoint here mainly adopted—these diseases are not of vital importance, because of their rarity and their isolation. They have, therefore, here been deliberately put on one side.1

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The question whether to be or not to be should have been decided by Hamlet's parents long before he was born, on advice taken. Considerations of capital values and of productive capacity point to many economic benefits as likely to arise from a diminution in the fertility of the

1 For a list of such ailments, see Eugenical Sterilization in the United States, Laughlin, 1922.

innately inferior; and no scruples should be felt in attempting either to decrease the rate of multiplication of the less fit or to increase that of the more fit. The number of those whose fertility might be decreased with advantage to the race is enormous; but practical considerations make it impossible to act on such theoretical conclusions. Compulsion can be but little if at all used in connexion with the results of eugenic prognosis; whilst expert advice ought often to be sought by potential parents in regard to their own actions in regard to parenthood. In giving such advice, the chance of its being accepted, and the possibility of children being born, are important points, which have ever to be kept in view. Qualities which are measurable are especially noteworthy; because in regard to them, prognostication concerning the unborn can be relied on to a considerable extent, even if the measurement of one parent only is known. Intelligence tests and school examinations of potential parents, the wages earned by them, and the age at death of the grandparents, give indications of great value in estimating the probable worth of the descendants of those now living. Pedigrees have often been published showing the reappearance of the same characteristics in many generations; the main explanation of this recurrence being assortive mating, and the selection of remarkable pedigrees for publication. Eugenic prognosis involves the consideration of so many complex elements, that it must be largely a matter of trained common sense; and in it the qualities of a prospective mate ought not to be taken into account. Pathological qualities, if of infrequent occurrence, are not here dealt with, being outside the scope of this work. Eugenic prognosis will be mainly employed in giving advice to potential parents who have relatives with unmeasurable defects-that is such defects as are exhibited by persons who are criminals, mentally defective, insane, epileptic, tuberculous, paupers, wastrels, drunkards, deaf, blind, etc. If wide attention were in future to be paid to eugenic prognostications made by trained experts, a great step in advance would have been made towards ridding the world of these evils. It must, however, be

recognized that those who are thus afflicted, and who might have children, form but a very small proportion of the whole population; and from this it follows that the racial advantages resulting from eugenic prognosis could not be so great as to stem any strong tendency towards national deterioration.

CHAPTER XVII

THE BURDEN OF THE LESS FIT

We have seen in the preceding chapters, and the point will become even more apparent in those which are to follow, that the adoption of eugenic reforms would in many cases involve sacrifices being made by the living for the sake of posterity. The object of such reforms would be to prevent racial deterioration and, it may be, to promote racial progress; and if any such self-sacrificing projects are to be regarded with favour by the public, the evils thus to be spared to those who will come after us must be set forth in the most concrete manner possible. We sometimes hear the prophecy made that under certain conditions society will cease to exist, or that our civilization will come to an end; but these terrible warnings leave us quite cold, because they raise no vivid pictures in our mind. Hence it may be as well to consider in as definite manner as may be the many ways in which the presence of the less fit in our ranks is now throwing a burden on the rest of the community; for in this way we shall get the clearest idea of the benefits to be derived by all individuals in future generations as the result of any elimination of the undesirable types. How much these inferior types now suffer, and how much less suffering there would be in the world if they did not exist, will also be indirectly brought to light.

THE DEFINITELY UNFIT

The most obvious, though by no means the most important question which can be asked in connexion with the damage done to others by the less fit, is as to the magnitude of the financial burden which is thrown on

the nation as a whole by those who are definitely defective in mind or body. Unfortunately I have been unable to obtain a satisfactory answer to this inquiry. Before the war I ascertained that the expenditure by the State in the United Kingdom on Law, Justice, police, the relief of the poor, infirmaries and lunatic asylums-all services which would be much less needed if the unfit were eliminated -amounted to £48,000,000 a year. Then, again, there is the expenditure on special schools, a burden still more closely correlated with hereditary defects. As to our national system of insurance, the necessary impost is made to fall on the employer, the employed and the State; and obviously the total sum involved, which before the war amounted to some £25,000,000 a year, would be reduced, or the benefits obtainable would be increased, if there were fewer of the unfit amongst those insured. As to the direct payment of taxes, little is of course received from degenerates; and what they might pay if fit, but do not, is obtained out of the taxation falling on their more competent neighbours. We have to consider not only taxes levied in money, but also imposts of other kinds, which in some countries form a heavy burden on the people; and even with us it should be noted that attendance on juries, compulsory service in war, and voluntary social services of many kinds fall harder on the capable in proportion to the number of the incapable who are either excused, rejected or unwilling to serve. Private expenditure in connexion with definitely defective individuals, including many forms of charity, must also be held in view. The endowed charities of the United Kingdom had an estimated income of some £3,500,000 a year before the war, a figure which perhaps might have been increased to £10,000,000 a year if all the unendowed charities had been added; whilst as to the cost yearly defrayed out of their own pockets by private individuals in maintaining their sick, defective and degenerate relatives, it can only be said that the total sum must be enormous. The foregoing facts at all events prove that there are many ways, both connected and not connected with taxation, in which human beings would find their