than the pure juice of the grape." The product of California wine for 1867 was somewhat more than 4,000,000 of gallons, and 400,000 gallons of brandy. In 1868 this production will doubtless be increased by about 30 per cent. Wine matures fast in the dry, warm, evaporating air of California, and at three years it has the age of eight years in Europe. The grapes ripen thoroughly and evenly on the bunches, and in 1,000 lbs. there will be scarcely a pound of unripe or rotted berries. The vine suffers nothing there from elemental disturbances. It is not mildewed nor storm-stripped; nor does it need leaf-pulling to give sun to ripen the grapes. Stakes are used but a short time; soon the vine acquires great size of stem, and they are dispensed with. In appearance the vine in fruit is like an umbrella opened out. The wines made are, in the order of the quantity of sales, the white wine or hock, portwine, angelica, sherry, sparkling champagne, muscat, and claret. The silk-culture is extending with great rapidity, but the size and excellence of the California cocoons and silkwormeggs have created such a demand for them in Europe, that it is, and probably will be for some years to come, more profitable to export them than to manufacture the silk in California.

The development of the various MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES of California has been rapid, but healthful. In every department of manufacture, the wares, goods, furniture, or machinery produced, are of the highest excellence, not merely makeshifts to keep out the goods or wares of the Eastern States, or of other countries, but of such quality that a demand has at once sprung up for them abroad, generally very far beyond the ability of the manufacturers to supply. Woollen goods have only been manufactured in the State since 1859, yet between 5,000,000 and 6,000,000 lbs. of wool are now consumed, and blankets, broadcloths, tweeds, cassimeres, flannels, shawls, and cloakings produced, all of the best quality. Their blankets and flannels in the Paris Exposition of 1867 took the first premium over all other American manufacturers. There has been a commencement of cotton and flax manufacturing, mainly of flour-bags, osnaburgs, drills, etc., and nearly $500,000 worth of these goods is produced. The flouring-mills of the State produced in 1868 over 1,000,000 barrels of flour, of which more than 600,000 barrels were exported. The sugar-refineries, drawing their crude sugar and molasses from the Hawaian Islands, Central America, Manila, Batavia, and Peru, produced in 1868 over $3,000,000 of manufactured sugar and syrup. But it is in the manufacture of railroad iron, machinery, locomotives, steam-engines, mining and agricultural machinery, iron plates for armored vessels and for building purposes, sheet-iron, and small articles made of sheet, cast, or rolled iron, that the largest amount of capital has been invested, and the greatest number of operatives em

ployed. Nearly $3,000,000 worth of castings alone was produced in the 15 manufactories of San Francisco only, in 1868, while the 25 other iron-works in other parts of the State produced probably nearly as much more. Wirerope, cordage, wire-cloths, etc., are also largely manufactured. Lumber of the softer woods, pine, fir, spruce, cedar, and redwood, is produced to the extent of over 250,000,000 feet annually. The leather of California, tanned with the bark of the chestnut-oak (which is said to contain more tannin than any other species of oak), has the highest reputation in the markets of the world, and all the surplus is exported. Over 100,000 hides are tanned annually. Gunpowder, fuse, paper, glass, soap, candles, glue, chemicals, vegetable-oils, lime, cement, boots and shoes, saddlery and harness of excellent quality, wagons, carriages, agricultural implements, furniture, pianos, organs, billiard-tables, malt liquors, brooms, wood and willow-ware, clothing, shirts, type, stereotype and electrotype plates, cigars, furs, packed meats, dried and canned fruits, sashes, blinds, stairs, mouldings, pitch, rosin, and turpentine, etc., are among the other manufactures of considerable magnitude in the State.

CANDIA, or CRETE, an island belonging to the Turkish empire. The area of Candia, inclusive of a number of small adjacent islands, is about 3,319 square miles. The population amounts, according to Captain Spratt ("Travels and Researches in Crete," London, 1865), to about 210,000, living in about 800 villages, and the three towns, Candea, Canea (Khania), and Retimo. According to another recent work on Candia (Elpis Melena, Die Insel Creta unter der Ottomanischen Verwaltung, Vienna, 1867), the population of Crete numbers about 300,000, of which 220,000 belong to the orthodox Greek Catholic Church, and the rest to Islam. The Cretan Mohammedans are not Turks, but Greeks, like the rest of the Cretans, who, under pressure of foreign conquest, have adopted the religion of the conquerors.*

The insurrection of the Cretan Christians against Turkish rule continued throughout the year. The Turkish Government several times officially announced the end of the insurrection, and the restoration of quiet; but all these reports proved untrue. As the war throughout the year consisted almost exclusively of guerilla operations, the military history of the revolution is not of importance. A large number of engagements took place, in which generally both parties claimed to have obtained a victory.

The Turkish Grand-Vizier, Ali Pacha, who had arrived in Crete on October 4, 1867, convoked an assembly of delegates to discuss the best means for improving the condition of the island. The assembly was opened on the 23d of November, and consisted of seventy-five mem

For fuller statistical and historical information, ses ANNUAL AMERICAN CYCLOPÆDIA for 1867.

bers, of whom only twenty-six were Christians. The Christian members of the Assembly asked for an exemption for several years from imposts; foundation of banks to develop agriculture, and several other similar measures, all of which were granted by the Turkish Government on the 11th of December. The Grand-Vizier was recalled from Crete on the 11th of February, 1868, and in March made a very elaborate report to the Sultan on the insurrection. The report-a quarto pamphlet of fourteen pages— is interesting as giving the views of one of the most prominent Turkish statesmen, not only on the condition of Crete, but on the Eastern question in general. It begins with an historical sketch of the revolt, and attributes the origin, maintenance, and still lingering vitality to four causes:

The first, strictly speaking, but the semblance of a pretext, is the discontent attributed to the populations. The second is the Panhellenic grande idée, that unrealizable utopia which is traded upon for the exclusive advantage of other ambitions. It is a ramification of the subterranean work which is undermining the majority of European states, by the aid of a new instrument, known as the principle of "nationalities" a dangerous principle, which Turkey will never admit, and which in Crete serves as a mask for a war of religion. In point of fact, the Cretan populations all speak the same language; religion alone separates them, the Mussulmans being as indigenous as the Christians. The third exists in the pressure put upon the cabinets friendly to Turkey by public opinion, misled by an unheard-of system of falsehoods and calumnies propagated through the press. This has given rise to a novel mode of intervention, known henceforward by the designation of the rescue (saudage) of families, the evident result of which is to give the insurgents freedom in their movements by withdrawing from them all family cares as also the motives to submission which the sufferings of beseeching women, children, and old men would afford. There is a fourth cause, which existed before all the others, which dominates every thing in the East, and which your Majesty will recognize by this simple mention of it. It is sufficient to see each of these causes in operation to determine what amount of influence each exercises upon the actual state of things in Crete, and to discern the obstacles which were calculated, in their artificially combined aggregate, to complicate my task before my arrival.

The moral cause is the "Hellenistic malady," which, through the liberty enjoyed by the Sultan's subjects, has been infiltrated into the minds of an ignorant and credulous population. There were also material causes:

Before the insurrection, the debts due between private persons amounted to about 150,000,000 piastres, of which the Mussulman population were creditors for more than two-thirds. There were, moreover, a certain number of individuals having a personal interest in shaking off" the yoke" of the Government to get rid of obligations they had contracted toward the Treasury in their character of tithe-farmers. Many of the principal leaders of bands are in this condition. Such a state of things gave rise in the minds of some to the thought of ridding themselves of their debt, and inspired the mass of the Christians with the hope of enriching themselves at the expense of the Mussulman population, who would, it was expected, be expelled from the island, at the same time that annexation would take place to Greece.... If Europe had been aware of these odious acts, it would have been indignant at them; it was, therefore, necessary

to deceive it; and the revolt, which had one hundred and seventeen newspapers at its service in Greece destruction of property to Mussulman barbarism. alone, used them very skilfully in order to impute the Moreover, individuals killed in the combats fought against the imperial troops were represented as inoffensive victims. Europe believed these falsehoods, systematically retailed by the Hellenic press with prothe victim of a studied fraud on its good faith. It might digious audacity, not suspecting that it was being made very easily, however, have satisfied itself as to the value of these calumnies, by calling to mind the old Roman adage, "The guilty is he who benefits by the tions, whose fortunes depended upon the olive plantacrime." Is it credible that the Mussulman populations, either directly as owners or indirectly by trade debts or mortgages, should have eagerly given themselves up to the destruction of the security of their property? Is it not more probable that those are the authors of the devastations who, desiring to get rid of the payment of their debts and to expel the Mussulman population, were alone interested in committing the crime?

After reviewing the history of the insurrection, the Grand-Vizier narrates the measures which he adopted on arriving in Crete. The first were to confirm and execute the amnesty, and to relieve the distressed Mussulmans and Christians who had been obliged to take refuge in the fortresses. The Grand-Vizier next considered the means of protecting the peaceful inhabitants against the "cruel and pitiless molestations" of the insurgent bands. Two plans of pacification presented themselves— one, general repression, the other, measures of prevention. The latter appeared to Ali Pacha as the only one adapted to the exigencies of the situation:

I found that the Cretan population could be classed in three categories: the first, and most numerous, wearied by disorders in which they had taken no part, and sincerely desiring a reestablishment of order; the second, hesitating and timid, fearing, above every thing, the vengeance and reprisals threatened by the rebels against those who submitted; and a third,

which included all who had an interest in disorder. In such a state of things, armed repression was impossible, the formal order of your Majesty being to avoid the shedding of blood except in case of necessity, so as not to expose the innocent to suffering for the guilty.

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The convening of a General Assembly on November 23d is next referred to, and the submission of the Lakiotes as an important incident, the Lakiotes having always been at the head of the rebels, and it being their village which gave the signal of the last rising." The new administration was inaugurated on December 3d. On the 8th of December, the Grand-Vizier visited Candia, where he received a requisition from the inhabitants of Zourva, a village near Lacos, "soliciting the destruction of their own dwellings in order that they should no longer be tyrannized over by the bands who had taken refuge there." This request was ecuted by the imperial troops, being the only instance, his highness remarks, during his stay in the island, that any measures were adopted except such as were purely defensive and for the protection of the inhabitants themselves. With the prorogation of the assembly on Feb

ex

expressive, his gestures animated, his diction was noble, and his voice incomparably sweet and sonorous. Then his intellect was of grand proportions, and his speech bore reading as well as hearing.

BETTS, SAMUEL R., LL. D., one of the ablest of American jurists, born in Richmond, Berkshire County, Mass., in 1787; died at New Haven, Conn., November 3, 1868. He was the son of a respectable farmer; and, after a thorough early training in his native town, entered Williams College, where he graduated with honor in 1806. After a diligent study of the law in Hudson, N. Y., he was admitted to the bar, and commenced practice in Sullivan County, N. Y., where he was winning a fair reputation, at the outbreak of the War of 1812, when he entered the army, and soon after was appointed Judge-Advocate by Governor D. D. Tompkins. In 1815 he was elected to Congress for the district comprising Orange and Sullivan Counties. At the close of the term, he declined a reelection, and devoted himself with great assiduity to the study and practice of his profession. He was for some years District-Attorney of Orange County. At that time, the bar of the State of New York was remarkable for the numerous eminent legal minds who were engaged in the practice of the profession in the courts of the eastern counties. Martin Van Buren, Elisha Williams, Thomas J. Oakley, George Griffin, Ogden Hoffman, Prescott Hall, and Thomas Addis Emmet, were the great lights of the bar, and with all of them Mr. Betts was brought in almost constant contact, and, though younger than most of them, was soon recognized as their peer in legal attainments and intellectual acumen. After about eight years of this practice, Mr. Betts was appointed by President Monroe, in 1823, Judge of the United States District Court. This position he held for the long period of forty-four years, and throughout the whole term presided over it with a dignity, a courtesy, a profundity of legal knowledge, a carefulness of research, and a patience of investigation which made him a model jurist in all the great questions brought before him. To him belongs the high honor of having shaped and settled in a great degree the maritime laws of the United States. The whole subjects of salvage, general average, wages of seamen, freighting, contracts, charters, insurance, and prizes, owe the greater portion of their present condition to the honored Judge, who has made the law so perfect and complete on these points, that the best lawyers in New York regard it as a finished code. For the first twenty years of his connection with the District Court, there was never an appeal from his decisions, and his opinions in his own court on maritime questions, and in the Circuit Court on patents, have been uniformly upheld. Every kind of question arising out of the criminal law of the United States has been before him; he has tried cases of piracy and murder on the high-seas, and discharged the whole

criminal business of a large district. The war brought before him an entirely new class of questions, affecting national and international rights; but although beyond the age of threescore-years-and-ten, the Judge bent himself to the new tasks imposed, and, with a vigor, a perseverance, and an ability rarely equalled, met the great demand of the most trying period of our history, in a manner which was creditable to himself, and reflected honor upon the country he so patriotically and faithfully served. His decisions upon the neutrality laws, and his judgments on the slave-trade, are fine specimens of constitutional reasoning and argument. As a judge, the lawyers who have had the best opportunities of forming an opinion say that Judge Betts never had a superior, and doubt if he had an equal. His bearing toward members of the bar was always gentlemanly and courteous. His judgments were regarded as the best considered on record. He conducted a case with coolness, clearness, and deliberation, allowing counsel every latitude that might tend to throw light on the matter at issue. And it may be well doubted whether any man on the bench in this country ever possessed the same amount of judicial ability. He held the place he vacated and honored for the lengthened period of forty-four years, and up to the day of his death he was still the revered and upright judge of that important court, where he pronounced numerous decisions, which are regarded as text-books of federal jurisprudence, and in after-years will be looked upon as the highest and soundest efforts of legal skill and research. In social and domestic life he was always highly esteemed and beloved; his conversational powers were unusually fine, his acquaintance with literature and men extensive, his manners courteous, and his treatment of all, especially of the young, such as to endear him to those with whom he came in contact. He did not outlive his interest in passing events, but his mind was bright and vigorous, even after the bodily frame showed signs of weakness and decay. In May, 1867, having entered upon his eighty-first year, and feeling the infirmities of age, Judge Betts retired from the bench he had so long honored, and passed the brief remainder of his life in the comforts and privacies of his home at New Haven.

BOLIVIA, a republic in South America. Provisional President since the revolution of December, 1864, General Mariano Melgarejo. The limits of the republic have not yet been fixed, and the statements of the area therefore widely differ. A treaty concluded between Bolivia and Chili, on August 10, 1866, fixed the 24th degree S. latitude as the dividing line between these two republics. Another treaty for regulating the frontier between Bolivia and Brazil was concluded on March 27, 1867. By this compact Bolivia resigns her claims to the western bank of the river Paraguay, a territory of about 18,000 square leagues.

made more than one futile attempt to destroy his popularity, going so far at one time as to organize an association to oppose him. About this time he published his "Golden Chain," which had an immense sale, but was mercilessly criticised by his rivals, on account of a few trifling errors which it contained. These were corrected by the well-known composer, Hastings, who assisted Mr. Bradbury in the preparation of several other deservedly popular musical works. Among these were "The Shawm" and "The Jubilee." "The Key Note" and "The Temple Choir," both very popular, were among his later publications. During these many years of labor, Mr. Bradbury had not neglected his studies in the art which he so passionately loved; but, feeling that there was still much to learn, he went to Leipsic in 1847, where he received instruction from the best German masters. He studied harmony and composition with Hauptmann, vocal music with Boehme, the piano with Wenzel, and, a firstclass teacher superintended his practice on the organ. In 1854 he began in New York the manufacture of pianos, and these soon acquired a very high reputation for their excellent tone and perfection of workmanship. Meantime he was bringing out with great rapidity those juvenile collections of music which have made his name a household word all over the land. Among them were the "Golden Chain," "Golden Shower," "Golden Censer," "Golden Trio," and "Fresh Laurels," his last work. No collection of religious music ever had so extensive a sale as these books. More than three millions of copies of his musical works have been sold. His excessive labors induced pulmonary disease, and for two years previous to his death he had been in very feeble health.

BRAZIL, an empire in South America. Emperor, Pedro II., born December 2, 1825; succeeded his father, Pedro I., on April 7, 1831. The Emperor has no son. His oldest daughter, Princess Isabella, is married (since October, 1864) to Count d'Eu, grandson of the late king Louis Philippe of France. The second daughter, Princess Leopoldina, is married (since December, 1864) to the Duke Augustus of SaxeCoburg-Gotha. Duke Augustus has two sons: Prince Pedro, born March 19, 1866; and Prince Augustus, born December 6, 1867.

A new ministry (Conservative) was appointed in July, 1868, composed of the following members: President and Minister of Finance, Senator Viscount de Itaborahy; Interior, Dr. Paulin Joseph Soarez de Souza; Justice, Dr. Joseph Martiniano de Alencar; Foreign Affairs, Senator Joseph Maria da Silva Paranhas; War, Senator Baron de Murityba; Navy, Senator Baron de Cotegipe; Public Works, Commerce, and Agriculture, Joachim Antão Fernandez Leão.

Minister of the United States in Brazil, in 1868, was J. Watson Webb (accredited October 21, 1861); Brazilian Minister at Washington,

Dominic Joseph Gonzalvez de Magelhães, appointed in 1867.

The area of Brazil is estimated at about 3,231,047 square miles. The population,* according to a recent work published by the Brazilian Government (L'Empire de Brésil, Rio de Janeiro, 1867), was 11,780,000, of whom 1,400,000 were negro slaves, and 500,000 Indians. The population of the capital, Rio de Janeiro, is estimated at 600,000.

In the budget for the years 1869-'70, the expenditure is estimated at 70,786,927 paper milreis (350 paper reis, or 180 silver reis, are equal to about 19 cents [gold]; 1 milreis means 1,000 reis), the revenue at 70,000,000 milreis; the deficit at 786,927 milreis. The chief source for the revenue are the customs. The external debt, on December 31, 1866, amounted to 381,189,950 milreis; the internal consolidated debt, .on April 15, 1868, to 125,206,700 milreis.

The standing army, in 1867, consisted of 25,844 men. The strength of the army employed in the war against Paraguay was esti mated, in April, 1868, at 42,998 men, of whom, however, 10,816 were reported sick. The total number of Brazilian troops forwarded to the war since the commencement was 84,219 (up to May 1st). The fleet, in 1868, was composed as follows: 1. Iron-clads, 17 afloat, 4 in course of construction. 2. Other armed vessels, 63. 3. Vessels not armed: 3 frigates, 2 corvettes, 1 brig, 1 transport. There are also (since the early part of 1868) twelve screw launches intended for the police of the Amazon. They are fifty feet long, draft three feet, and mount a thirty-two pound swivel forward. A fine steamer called the Arary had also come from England for the Amazonas Navigation Company, which steamer is 221 feet long, 26 beam, 10 hold, and of 739 tons burden.

The imports and exports of Brazil during the three years 1865-1867 were as follows (value expressed in milreis):